rhetorical uses to require no more formal treatment, except as they may be exhibited as rudimentary processes, the one of narration, the other of description.

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Of the six processes of explanation named as chief processes, the first two - Narration and Description - regard the theme as an integrate whole, the former under the forms of time, the latter under those of space. The other four regard the theme as a logical whole. The third and fourth Division and Partition -respect the theme, the former as a subject-whole, or class; the latter as a predicate-whole. An explanation by the one gives as parts lower classes, varieties, or individuals; an explanation by the other gives the constituent attributes that make up the theme. These move in the relationship of whole to part, explaining the whole by all the parts. Of the last two, Exemplification moves in the relationship of whole to part, but explains the theme as a whole by a single part. Comparison and Contrast, on the other hand, move in the relationship of part to part, and explain by exhibiting the theme as a part through a complementary part, either as similar or as different.

§ 74. While these processes may all be combined in certain cases in the same discourse, they are yet easily distinguishable. They may, in some cases, constitute each the single and only process of explanation. They are, also, subject to entirely different principles regulating the use of them in discourse. Hence the propriety and utility of considering them distinctly.

As has been before observed, every art embraces diverse particular processes, all of which, in the more complicated forms of the art, are carried on simultaneously together. In the acquisition of the art, however, these processes are analyzed, and studied and exemplified in practice separately and singly. An extended arithmetical process generally

combines the various particular processes of addition, sub

traction, multiplication, and division, if not various other higher processes. In acquiring the art, however, the attention of the learner is advantageously directed to these particular processes singly and successively. Each is studied and exercised upon before the next is taken up. When each several process is thus made familiar by separate and continued study and exercise, the more complicated operations are performed with ease and success. It is so with every art. So self-evident, indeed, is this principle that nothing but the fact of the strange neglect and oversight of it in the art of constructing discourse could justify a repeated reference to it in vindication of the course that is here proposed. The learner cannot be too earnestly or too frequently reminded of the necessity of studying and exercising upon each particular process in discourse separately; and of continuing his study and practice upon each in order, until a perfect practical familiarity with it is acquired.

CHAPTER II.

OF NARRATION.

§ 75. NARRATION is that process of explanation which exhibits the theme in its relations to time.

There are three different views which may be taken of an object in its relations to time, according as the view fastens more directly on the period of time in which the object of thought appears, on the object itself, or on the cause that works in the object. Every event thus has, first, its period, its duration, and its stages or parts of time; secondly, its subject which changes, making up the body of the event, so to speak; and thirdly, the cause which works out the event. The view accordingly may rest more directly on the period of time as filled out by the transpiring event; or on that which is the subject of change in that period; or, finally, on the cause which works out the changes during this period. If, for instance, we take as the theme England, we may narrate the theme by taking, first, the period of England and separating it into centuries or the periods covered by successive dynasties or individual reigns, mention the events that transpired in each of these successive portions of time. Such narratives are called annals or chronologies. Or, in the second place, we may take the subject of change, England, and exhibit that as it changes in the time of its existence. We have then proper History. Or, in the third place, we may take the succession of causes that have worked out the changes in English history and make them prominent. We have then what is called a Philosophical History. Although all these

forms of narrative agree in this that they alike view the theme under the relations of time, they yet differ specifically in important respects. It is necessary, therefore, that in writing a narrative it be clearly recognized in thought, at least, which view is to predominate, the chronological, the proper historical, or the causal. All the laws of explanation will vary their application, according to the specific view of the theme as here indicated.

The relation between these species of narration is well illustrated both in the changes of individual experience in respect to the degree of interest felt in them respectively, and also in the progress of historical literature. The child notices chiefly and characteristically the events that fill up a period of time. He passes from subject to subject in disregard of all interior connection. His narratives are made up of the series of events that have occurred one after another, to the suppression both of the subject and of the cause. The more advanced mind delights in proper history; it takes little pleasure in mere chronologies; it demands a subject of change and finds the chief interest in its changings, with comparatively slight interest in the causes that work the change. The more mature mind remains unsatisfied till it passes through the chronological succession of events to the one subject, the change in which forms the interior content of those events and the bond of connection between them, and then to the cause that produces those changes.

Corresponding to this changing experience in the individual mind, is the progress of narrative literature. The earlier histories confine themselves mainly to the simple representation of the successive events that fill up the period. and the sphere of their narratives. More recent histories present the subject as passing through these changes; while truly causal, that is, philosophical histories, are the production of the most recent times. This progress in historical literature is exemplified in the histories of Herodotus, of Hume, and of Guizot.

§ 76. THE THEME in narration is ever something viewed as becoming, happening, changing. It is either SIMPLE, consisting of what is outward and sensible; or ABSTRACT, consisting of what is internal and spiritual. Examples of Simple Themes are: the siege of Jerusalem; the Crusades; the battle of Waterloo; the settlement of America; the Athenian Republic; - of Abstract Themes: the working of pride; the formation of habit; the progress of art.

Themes in either class are variously modified according as they are viewed, in more direct reference (1), to time, that is, chronologically; or (2), to the subject of change, that is, historically; or (3), to the cause working in this subject, that is, philosophically.

Narrative themes are distributed also, on a somewhat different principle of division, into

1. Those of physical nature, narratives of which are styled Natural Histories, as of the globe, of plants, of animals.

2. Those of rational life. Themes of this class are subdivided into (a), those of individuals, narratives of which are biographies, memoirs, etc., if they cover personal experience generally, or travels, voyages, etc., if they embrace only particular kinds of personal experience; and (b), those of communities, narratives of which are proper histories. They are either (1), religious, or (2), secular or profane. They are also either general, exhibiting the experience generally, or particular, exhibiting only specific phases of it, as political, intellectual, moral, artistie, commercial, etc.

§ 77. The Law of Unity in narration requires, first, that the one theme be presented throughout as a proper narrative theme, that is, in its relations to time; and secondly, that it be presented in but one of the three possible views of a narrative theme, chronological, proper historical, or philosophical, as the predominant and governing view.