CHAPTER IV.

OF MOTIVES.

§ 222. By a Motive is meant whatever occasions or induces free action in man.

In strictness, motives are conditions on which the free self-activity is called forth in some one or other of its various specific forms. Mind is in its essential nature active; but the determination of its activity is through some object presented to it. When it is determined in its action by any object thus presented to it, such object is a motive-it determines the mind in this or that direction, it moves the mind in this way or that. Whatever object thus moves it or determines it, must respect some one or more of the various tendencies, proclivities, of the mind. A motive, accordingly, is that which arouses or animates or depresses any such tendency. These various tendencies, proclivities, these specific springs or principles of action which motives respect, are of various distinguishable kinds. We have, first, the two kinds of activity distinguished; 1, as that which is general and constitutional under the law of habit; and 2, those which are specific in reference to particular ends and objects. Specific activities are further distinguished; (1) as animal; and (2) as 'spiritual. Spiritual activities are still further distinguished: (1) as to ultimate objects or ends; (2) as to adjuncts which may be either antecedent as means and conditions of attaining these ultimate ends, or consequent as the results and consequences. And once more, besides these, which are all absolute and irrelative as it respects degree, there are those which

respect comparative degree or extent.

We have therefore

six classes of motives, distributed in reference to the activities or proclivities in the nature of man, general or specific, simple or comparative. They all have their subdivisions; particularly is it worthy of distinct remark, they are each subdivided into the positive and negative in the different forms of good and bad, more and less, etc. The six great fields distributed in respect to the activity addressed in which motives are to be sought, accordingly, are (1) The general activity under the law of habit in man's nature; (2) animal instincts; (3) spiritual aspirations and tendencies; (4) pursuit of means and conditions; (5) pursuit of results and consequences; and (6) love of superiority and its opposite.

§ 223. The first class of motives in respect of activity addressed, embraces (1) those which are addressed to the general activity of the mind; and (2) those addressed to its acquired habits.

It is sufficient often simply to propose something to be done. In its discontented restlessness, its dissatisfaction with things or events, its ennui, the mind is often ready to adopt any thing, any act, any measure, any course, any policy; and the skillful orator in persuasion has only to ascertain the particular sphere of its discontent, and whatever may be the course he may open, he may calculate on its being adopted.

The mind moves, moreover, with readiness in the channel of its habitual activity. Hence the importance of the speaker's informing himself of the habits of those whom he addresses, as he may reasonably expect that so far as he can enlist them his success is more sure and complete.

§ 224. The second class of motives indicated, the animal instincts, comprises those which address the love of life and of health, and the several appetites.

Here as elsewhere are to be recognized the positive and the negative—those which promote life and health and

gratify appetite, and those which are of the opposite character. In this field lie also those which are to be addressed to acquired and perverted as well as to constitutional appetites.

§ 225. The third class of motives, spiritual aspirations and tendencies, embraces those which respect the True, the Beautiful, and the Good, the ultimate ends of pursuit.

In this class are to be found those which address the desire of knowledge the active principle of curiosity, and the principle of communicativeness. This last principle, of great power and extent, Guizot well recognizes when he remarks that if a man makes a mental advance, some mental discovery, if he acquires some new idea, the desire takes possession of him at the very moment he makes it, to promulgate and publish his thought.

Here are also to be found the love of the Beautiful, as object, and the strong principle of artistic endeavor, the impulses of creative genius, often so irrepressible and so inextinguishable.

Moreover, in this class are comprised the love of the Right and of the Good; the active principle of beneficence; and, still again, the desire that the Right be done and maintained, including the principles of anger, resentment, revenge.

§ 226. The fourth class of motives embraces the desires for means and conditions of the higher ultimate ends just enumerated, as the desire of wealth, of station, social position, friendship.

§ 227. The fifth class of motives, which respect results and consequences attending the ultimate ends of pursuit, includes those which appeal to self-complacency, pride, shame, remorse; to the love of esteem, of fame, glory, and the fear of disesteem, reproach, disgrace;

to the hopes and fears of the divine favor or displeasure, and of consequent providential good and evil.

men.

The subdivisions of this class of motives will be readily recognized as grounded on the relations of our conduct and experience to ourselves, our fellows, or our Creator, as sympathizing and rewarding observers. We desire the approval of our own consciences, we dread shame and remorse; we equally seek the favorable opinion and regards of our fellow"A good name is rather to be chosen than riches." The love of adulation, of undeserved commendation, honor, or favor, is a perverted form of this constitutional tendency. So, likewise, the desire of the divine approval and favor, the hopes of good, and the fears of evil that come in the flow of his Providence, are powerful impulses of our nature, which may be appropriately addressed by motives.

§ 228. The sixth class of motives embraces those which are founded on comparative attainment of ends, which appeal to the love of superiority, of eminence, above our fellows, and includes emulation and the perverted forms of this principle of our nature, jealousy and envy.

§ 229. Motives admit of a gradation in strength either in respect of their own essential purity and excellence, or in respect of the condition of the mind addressed by them.

Motives that concern more nearly spiritual interests outrank those which respect only our animal nature and condition; and tendencies to ends outrank those to means and conditions. Those which address legitimate constitutional tendencies are higher than those which address perverted or immoderate habits or propensities. The love of the purely right and good is a higher principle than the love of knowledge. Properly base motives are excluded from the sphere of all true oratory.

The strength of a motive may also be estimated in reference to the particular character or condition of the mind addressed. The purely virtuous man can be influenced by considerations that would be utterly lost on the unprincipled and depraved. One activity, one proclivity, is predominant in the same individual to-day, another to-morrow. The political community is moving at one time in one direction, at another time in quite a different, perhaps opposite direction. The same religious association as a whole, is at one time excessively active or inert in relation to this, at another in relation to that department of Christian living. These different gradations suggest the following rules or guiding principles for the selection of motives.

§ 230. In selecting motives the following principles should guide :

First, the higher in their own purity and excellence are ever to be preferred; and when lower are to be employed, it is better even for oratorical effect and success to subordinate them to the higher, and as far as may be embody them in the higher.

Secondly, the more numerous the assembly addressed, the more freely may the higher motives be urged, since the higher are the more universal.

Thirdly, the specific tendencies of the minds addressed should be carefully explored as far as may be, and the selection of motives be ever determined in reference to them.