CHAPTER III.

OF PROOF.

§ 125. CONFIRMATION effects its object-conviction - by the exhibition of those conceptions or judgments on which the proposition to be confirmed depends ; in other words, BY THE EXHIBITION OF Proof.

Proof consists, sometimes, of mere conceptions. All that is necessary in such a case is to exhibit those conceptions distinctly to view, and the work of conviction is completed, so far as the mere proof is concerned. When I am to prove that "the setting fire to an outhouse in a given case is arson," I have only to resolve the term arson into its constituent conceptions, and exhibit them in order. If arson be defined to be "the malicious setting fire to any thing combustible whereby human life is endangered," then, if in the case supposed, the setting fire be admitted to be malicious, and a dwelling was consumed in consequence, the proof is made out on exhibiting the essential constituents of arson. So in proving faith to be a virtue, I have only to analyze faith and exhibit its component parts as a moral exercise put forth in accordance with an intellectual assent to truth. The terms of the proposition faith and virtue being understood, the mind instantly passes into a belief of the proposition. This process, according to the universally admitted use of language, is rightly denominated proof; although this term may have been by some writers and in some cases restricted in its application to that species of reasoning in which the conclusion depends on judgments. The importance of this

distinction in regard to the means of proof will be seen in the classification of arguments.

It follows from the view of confirmation presented in this section that invention in this part of discourse will consist mainly in finding proof.

It should be remarked that while the distinctive work of confirmation consists in exhibiting proof, the mere exhibition of proof is not to be regarded as all that enters into this process, as will be seen more specifically in a following section.

In confirmatory discourse, accordingly, proof constitutes the body of discussion (§ 57).

§ 126. Proof is either DIRECT or INDIRECT. It is direct, when it is applied immediately to the establishment of the proposition.

It is indirect, when it is applied to the overthrow of objections. In the latter case it is called REFUTA

TION.

§ 127. A complex proposition, embracing several constituent propositions, may be proved by the separate and successive proof of each constituent part.

Although sometimes a complex proposition may best be proved without such analysis and separate proof of the parts, as, for instance, when the proofs are applicable alike to every part, still generally it will prevent confusion and conduce to clearness and force in the reasoning to analyze the proposition and establish each part separately. In order to secure this advantage the proposition should be carefully studied at the outset, to see whether it be complex or not, and if complex, whether the proof can be best applied to the whole or to each part separately.

A proposition may be sometimes best analyzed through the subject, sometimes through the predicate, sometimes through both. Further, the analysis may be either by division or by

partition. The proposition, Free institutions are favorable to literature, may be analyzed for proof, thus, through the subject free institutions; as, (1.) Free political institutions are favorable to literature; (2.) Free religious institutions are favorable to literature; (3.) Free educational institutions are favorable to literature; (4.) Free social institutions are favorable to literature: or, through the predicate, Free institutions are favorable (1.) to oratory; (2.) to poetry; (3.) to scientific discussion; (4.) to history; (5.) to criticism.

§ 128. The work of proving a particular simple proposition or a complex proposition regarded as simple, so far as invention is concerned, consists in the selection and arrangement of the proofs on which assent to the proposition depends. This part of rhetorical invention was denominated by the ancients "THE TOPICAL ART," or "THE TOPICS."

This department of the art of rhetoric was regarded by the ancient rhetoricians and orators as one of the most important in the whole province of rhetoric. Aristotle and Cicero wrote separate treatises upon it. It entered largely into every regular treatise on the art, and into every system of instruction. That it has fallen so much into disuse is to be explained from the causes that have led to the neglect of the department of invention generally. It forms a necessary, constituent part of this branch of rhetoric. A distinct view of the Topics will accordingly be presented in the following chapter.

CHAPTER IV.

OF THE TOPICS.

§ 129. Ir is the object of the Topical art to facilitate and guide rhetorical invention in confirmation by a distribution of the different kinds of proofs into general classes.

The name originally signifies places, Tónoi; the Latin of which was loci. The whole field of proofs was divided off into several parts, to which the invention was directed as the seats or places of arguments. They were hence called sometimes sedes argumentorum. The topics proper constituted a species of the loci communes, which included not only arguments but truths used for illustration, embellishment, or other purposes in discourse, and are generally by the ancient writers thus distinguished from the topics proper.

The specific practical utility of a system of topics consists chiefly in the following particulars, namely:

1. It facilitates the search for proof generally; inasmuch as it exhibits in systematic arrangement the few general classes into which all possible proofs may be reduced. The search is thus rendered direct, definite, and intelligent.

2. By the distribution of proofs into classes according to the intrinsic nature of the proofs, the topics show at once the comparative weight and value of the different arguments that bear upon the same question. The selection is thus made easy; certain kinds of sophistry, and those of the most dangerous kind, are at once detected; and the number of arguments necessary in a given case is evinced. As will

appear more clearly hereafter, some propositions can be proved only by a certain class of arguments. The arguments of one class, moreover, are intrinsically more weighty than those of another. Some compel belief irresistibly, others only establish a degree of probability greater or less. It is one of the most common and at the same time most successful arts of sophistry to put off the less for the more weighty, the merely probable for the absolutely demonstrative proof.

3. The topics furnish at once the main principles of arrangement.

4. By directing the attention of the learner to definite parts of the whole field of arguments successively, they furnish the means of a more thorough and familiar acquaintance with their respective nature and use.

§ 130. The first general division of proofs is into those which are given in the very terms of the proposition to be proved, and those which are to be sought out of it.

The former class may be denominated ANALYTIC, the latter SYNTHETIC proofs.

All propositions, susceptible of proof, contain the proof within themselves, or depend on some truth or conception out of themselves. The former class are denominated by logicians analytic, the latter synthetic propositions. The proposition all trees are organic is analytic, since from the very analysis of the terms trees and organic, the conceptions are given on which the truth of the proposition rests. So likewise, the proposition dueling is murder is analytic, as an analysis of the terms furnishes the proof.

On the other hand, the proposition dueling is a relic of barbarism is synthetic, since here no analysis of terms would furnish the proof of the truth affirmed. Something is added to the subject in the predicate and the ground.