privileges as the natural citizens. The quality of a citizen of Athens, was sometimes granted, in honour and gratitude, to those who merited well of the state; as to Hippocrates, the physician: and even kings sometimes canvassed that title for themselves and their children. When the young men attained the age of twenty, they were enrolled upon the list of citizens, after having taken an oath; and, in virtue of this, they became members of the state.

Strangers, or foreigners, who came to settle at Athens, for the sake of commerce, or of exercising any trade, had no share in government, nor votes in the assemblies of the people. They put themselves under the protection of some citizen; and, upon that account, were obliged to render him certain duties and services. They paid a yearly tribute to the state, of twelve drachmas; and, in default of payment, were made slaves, and exposed to sale.

Of servants, there were some free, and others slaves, who had been taken in war, or bought of such as trafficked in them. The Athenians were as remarkable for their lenity to these unhappy men, as the Spartans were noted for their severity and cruelty. There was even an asylum for slaves, where the Dones of Theseus had been interred; and that asylum subsisted for nearly two thousand years.

When slaves were treated with too much rigour and inhu manity, they might bring their masters to justice: who, if the fact were sufficiently proved, were obliged to sell them to another master. They could even ransom themselves against their master's consent, when they had laid up money enough for that purpose; for, out of what they got by their labour, after having paid a certain proportion to their masters, they kept the remainder for themselves; and made a stock of it at their own disposal. Private persons, when they were satisfied with their services, often gave them their liberty; and, when the necessity of the times obliged the state to make their greatest levies, they were enrolled among the troops; and from thence were ever after free.

The annual revenues of this city, according to Aristophanes, amounted to two thousand talents, or about three hundred thousand pounds sterling. They were generally gathered from the taxes upon agriculture; the sale of woods; the produce of mines; the contributions paid them by their allies; a capitation, levied upon the inhabitants of the country, as well natives as strangers; and from fines laid upon different misdemeanors.

The application of these revenues was in paying the troops, both by land and sea building and fitting out fleets; keeping

up and repairing temples, walls, ports, citadels, and othe public buildings. But, in the decline of the republic, the greater part was consumed in frivolous expenses, games feasts, and shows; which cost immense sums, and were of ne manner of utility to the state.

But the greatest glory of Athens, was its being the schoo and abode of polite learning, arts, and sciences. The study of poetry, eloquence, philosophy, and mathematics, began there and brought these branches almost to their utmost perfection The young people were sent first to learn grammar, under masters, who taught them regularly, and upon the principles of their own language.

Eloquence was studied with still greater attention; as, in that popular government, it opened the way to the highest employments. To the study of rhetoric, was annexed that of philosophy, which comprised all the sciences; and in these there were many masters, very conversant, but, as is common, their vanity was still greater than their prctensions.

All the subordinate states of Greece, seemed to make Athens the object of their imitation; and, though inferior to it upon the whole, yet each produced great scholars, and remarkable warriors, in its turn. Sparta, alone, took example from no other state; but, still rigorously attached to the institutions of its great lawgiver, Lycurgus, it disdained all the arts of peace, which, while they polished, served to enervate, the mind; and, formed only for war, it looked forward to campaigns and battles, as scenes of rest and tranquillity.

All the laws of Sparta, and all the institutions of Lycur gus, seemed to have no other object, than war; all other em ployments, arts, polite learning, sciences, trades, and even husbandry itself, were prohibited amongst them.

The citizens of Lacedæmon were of two sorts; those who inhabited the city of Sparta, and, who, for that reason, were called Spartans; and those who inhabited the country dependent thereon. In the times of Lycurgus, the Spartans amounted to nine thousand men; the countrymen to thirty thousand. This number was rather diminished than increased, in suc. ceeding times; but it still composed a formidable body, that often gave laws to the rest of Greece.

The Spartan soldiers, properly so called, were considered as the flower of the nation; and we may judge of their estimation, by the anxiety the republic expressed, when three hundred of them were once taken prisoners by the Athenians.

But, notwithstanding the great valour of the Spartan state, It was formed rather for a defensive, than an offensive war, It was always careful to spare its own troops; and, as it had

very little money, was not in a capacity to send its armies apon distant expeditions.

The armies, both of Sparta and Athens, were composed of four sorts of troops: citizens, allies, mercenaries, and slaves. The greater number of troops in the two republics, were composed of allies, who were paid by the cities that sent them. Those which received pay from their employers, were styled mercenaries. The number of slaves attending on every army was very great; and the Helotes in particular were employed as light infantry.

The Greek infantry consisted of two kinds of soldiers; the one heavy armed, and carrying great shields, spears, and scimitars; the other light armed, carrying javelins, bows, and slings. These were commonly placed in the front of the battle, or upon the wings, to shoot their arrows, or fling their javelins and stones at the enemy, and then retire through the intervals behind the ranks, to dart out occasionally, upon the retiring

enemy.

The Athenians were almost strangers to cavalry; and the Lacedæmonians did not begin the use till after the war with Messena. They raised their horse principally in a small city, not far from Lacedæmon, called Sciros; and they were always placed on the extremity of the left wing; which post they claimed as their rightful station.

But, to recompense this defect of cavalry, the Athenians, in naval affairs, had a great superiority over all the states of Greece. As they had an extensive sea coast, and, as the profession of a merchant was held reputable among them, their navy increased; and was at length sufficiently powerful. to intimidate the fleets of Persia.

Such, were the two states, which, in some measure, engrossed all the power of Greece to themselves; and, though several petty kingdoms still held their governments in independence, yet they owed their safety to the mutual jealousy of these powerful rivals; and always found shelter from the one, against the oppressions of the other. Indeed, the dissimilarity of their habits, manners, and education, served as well to divide these two states, as their political ambition.

The Lacedæmonians were severe, and seemed to have something almost brutal in their character. A government too rigid, and a life too laborious, rendered their tempers haughtily sullen and untractable.

The Athenians were, naturally, obliging and agreeable, cheerful among each other, and humane to their inferiors: but they were restless, unequal, timorous friends, and capricious protectors.

D2

Hence, neither republic could sufficiently win over th smaller states of Greece to their interests; and, although thei ambition would not suffer the country to remain in repose yet their obvious defects were always a bar to the spreading of their dominion. Thus, the mutual jealousy of these states kept them both in constant readiness for war, while thei common defects kept the lesser states independent,

CHAPTER V.

From the Expulsion of Hippias, to the Death of Darius. It was in this disposition of Athens and Sparta, and of the lesser states, their neighbours, that the Persian monarchy be gan to interest itself in their disputes; and made itself an um pire in their contentions for liberty, only to seize upon the lib erties of all. It has been already related, that Hippias being besieged in Athens, and his children being taken prisoners; in order to release them, he consented to abdicate the sov. ereign power, and to leave the dominion of Athens in five days. Athens, however, in recovering its liberty, did not enjoy that tranquillity, which freedom is thought to bestow.

Two of the principal citizens, Calisthenes, a favourite of the people, and Isagoras, who was supported by the rich, be gan to contend for that power, which they had, but a little before, joined in depressing. The former, who was become very popular, made an alteration in the form of their estab lishment; and, instead of four tribes, whereof they before con sisted, enlarged their number to ten.

He also instituted the giving of votes by Ostracism, as it was called. The manner of performing this, was for every citizen, not under sixty years old, to give in a name, written upon a tile, or oystershell, (whence the method of voting had its name) and he upon whom the majority fell, was pronounced banished for ten years. These laws, evidently cal culated to increase the power of the people, were so displeasing to Isagoras, that, rather than submit, he had recourse to Cleomenes king of Sparta, who undertook to espouse his quarrel. In fact, the Lacedæmonians only wanted a favourable pretext for lessening and destroying the power of Athens, which, in consequence of the command of the oracle, they had so lately rescued from tyranny.

Cleomenes, therefore, availing himself of the divided state of the city, entered Athens, and procured the banishment of Calisthenes, with seven hundred families more, who had si ded with him in the late commotions. Not content with this

ne endeavoured to new model the state; but, being strongly opposed by the senate, he seized upon the citadel; whence, however, in two days he was obliged to retire. Calisthenes, perceiving the enemy withdrawn, returned, with his followers; and, finding it vain to make any further attempts for power, restored the government, as settled by Solon.

In the mean time, the Lacedæmonians, repenting the ser vices they had rendered their rival state, and perceiving the imposture of the oracle, by which they were thus impelled to act against their own interests, began to think of reinstat ing Hippias on the throne. But, previous to this attempt, they judged it prudent to consult the subordinate states of Greece, and to see what hopes they had of their concurrence and approbation. Nothing, however, could be more mortifying than the universal detestation with which their proposal was received, by the deputies of the states of Greece.

The deputy of Corinth expressed the utmost indignation at the design; and seemed astonished, that the Spartans, who were the avowed enemy of tyrants, should thus espouse the interests of one noted for cruelty and usurpation. The rest of the states warmly seconded his sentiments, and the Lacedæmonians, covered with confusion and remorse abandoned Hippias and his cause for ever after.

Hippias, being thus frustrated in his hopes of exciting the Greeks to second his pretensions, was resolved to have recourse to one who was considered as a much more powerful patron. Wherefore, taking his leave of the Spartans, he ap plied himself to Artaphernes, governor of Sardis, for the king of Persia; whom he endeavoured, by every art, to engage in a war against Athens. He represented to him the divided state of the city; he enlarged upon its riches, and the happi ness of its situation for trade; he added the ease with which it might be taken, and the glory that would attend success. Influenced by these motives, the pride and the avarice of the Persian court were inflamed, and nothing was so ardently sought, as a pretext of a dispute with the Athenians. When, therefore, that city sent to the Persian court to vindicate their proceedings, alleging that Hippias deserved no countenance from so great a people; the answer returned was, That if the Athenians would be safe, they must admit Hippias for their king.

Athens, having so lately thrown off the yoke, had too live ly a sense of its past calamities, to accept safety, upon such base conditions: and resolved to suffer to the last extremity, rather than open its gates to a tyrant. When Artaphernes, therefore, demanded the restoration of Hippias, the Athenians