popular of which, his "Instructor's Manual, or Lectures on School Keeping," has passed through many editions. He now resides at Brownington, Vt.

HALLAM, HENRY, an English historical writer, born in Windsor in 1777, died in Penshurst, Kent, Jan. 21, 1859. His father was dean of Bristol, and he was educated at Eton college and the university of Oxford, where he was graduated in 1799. He pursued the study of the law, but never engaged to any extent in its practice. He was the personal and political friend of the distinguished liberal statesmen of his time, of Lords Althorp, Lansdowne, Brougham, and Russell, and Sir James Mackintosh, and was among the early contributors to the "Edinburgh Review." His articles in that journal gave him a recognized and distinguished place among the liberal and impartial thinkers and writers in England, in the first and second decades of this century. At length in 1818, being now 40 years of age, after mature preparation and laborious study, he gave to the world his first elaborate historical work. No writer of any great eminence had appeared in England, in this department, to keep up the succession of Hume, Robertson, and Gibbon. It was therefore with some appearance of a revival of studies which had been neglected for a generation, that Mr. Hallam brought before the public his "View of the State of Europe during the Middle Ages," in 2 vols. 4to. But this treatise, though a historical work, was not a history. Its professed object was not to narrate a course of events, but to exhibit, in a series of historical dissertations, a comprehensive survey of the chief subjects of interest in what are commonly called the middle ages. These subjects are, in the 1st volume, the history of France from the conquest of Clovis to the invasion of Naples by Charles VIII.; the feudal system, especially as it existed in France; the history of Italy, from the extinction of the Carlovingian dynasty to the invasion of Naples by Charles VIII.; the history of Spain to the conquest of Granada; the history of Germany to the diet of Worms in 1495; the history of the Greeks and Saracens; and the history of the ecclesiastical power during the middle ages. In the 2d volume the history of the ecclesiastical power in the middle ages is continued, upon which follows the history of the constitution, under the heads of the Anglo-Saxon constitution, the Anglo-Norman constitution, and the English constitution; and the volume closes with a chapter on the state of society in Europe during the middle ages. It will be perceived, from the extensive range of his topics, all of which are treated with a profound knowledge of the facts, as well as with a spirit of enlightened and impartial criticism, that Mr. Hallam's researches have been pushed into many departments of medieval history, and that no ordinary skill was required to condense the result into two volumes. A work of this kind necessarily wants what may be called the epic attraction of a great historical composition in

the ordinary sense of the words; but for the philosophical student it has its counterbalancing advantages. The endless detail of facts in a work like Gibbon's, however skilfully narrated, is wearisome at the time, and soon escapes the memory, General results, institutions, prominent characters, and great events, are all that the ordinary powers of recollection can retain; and these are clearly stated and fully illustrated by Mr. Hallam. He does not equal either of the three great historians of the last century in style; but his learning is more select and critical than Gibbon's; his facts are more to be relied on and his judgment more impartial than Hume's; and in all the qualities of a historical writer of the first class, with the exception perhaps of the easy flow of language, he excels Robertson. Mr. Hallam modestly states that he had more in view the instruction of the young than the improvement of mature readers. This work rose at once to the rank of a standard treatise, and after a lapse of 30 years a supplemental volume was published by Mr. Hallam, presenting in a series of annotations the result of his studies since its first appearance, with the advantage of the labors of the great French historical writers who had appeared in the interval, Sismondi, Michelet, and Guizot, with their associates of somewhat lower though highly respectable rank, Thierry, Fauriel, and Raynouard. His obligations to several historical writers in England, or writers illustrating historical subjects-Sir Francis Palgrave, Allen, Kemble, Spence, Starkie, Nicolas, and Wright

are also acknowledged. A just and beautiful compliment is also paid by Mr. Hallam, in the preface to this supplemental volume, to M. Guizot. After an interval of 9 years, Mr. Hallam published his second great work, "The Constitutional History of England from the Accession of Henry VII. to the Death of George II." (2 vols. 4to., 1827). This work takes up the history of the British constitution where it was left in the 8th chapter of the "History of the Middle Ages." It was originally his intention to carry on the whole of this last named work, from the point where he left it, down to about the middle of the last century. Finding that this would be an enterprise of unwieldy dimensions and of labor beyond his strength, he satisfied himself with a continuation of the history of the constitution of his own country. He gives, however, a wide comprehension to the subject, making it include the establishment of the English church and the proceedings of the state with reference to dissenters. The work also contains two supplemental chapters on Scotland and Ireland. Mr. Hallam remarks, in reference to the general character of his work, that the "constitutional and general history of England at some periods necessarily coincide;" and this is peculiarly the case in regard to the reformation and the civil wars, which are treated in the most important chapters of this work. This second work of Mr. Hallam possessed the characteristic merits of the first, patience of research,

accuracy of statement, and firm attachment to liberal principles, united however with moderation and impartiality in the judgment of character and estimate of measures. But it covered a period nearer to our own times, and touched the roots of existing controversies; it did not therefore command the same general assent, in reference to the statement of facts and the assertion of principles. It was attacked by Mr. Southey in the "Quarterly Review" as the work of a "decided partisan;" but this was a judgment which confuted itself-a party judgment from a decided partisan. Mr. Southey's laborious disparagement and attempted impeachment of the historical faith of Mr. Hallam were followed in a few months, in the "Edinburgh Review," by one of the most brilliant productions of the most brilliant writer of the age, who says: "On a general survey, we do not scruple to pronounce the Constitutional History' to be the most impartial book we ever read." This testimony from Lord Macaulay is the more valuable because, in the article referred to, he expresses his dissent from Mr. Hallam on several points of prime importance in English constitutional history. Mr. Hallam himself says, with a noble consciousness of impartiality, that no one will suspect him of being a “blind zealot ;" and the adverse judgment to which we have alluded has not been confirmed by the verdict of the enlightened public either in England or America. Thirty years have elapsed since the "Constitutional History" was published, and opinion has been more and more settling down upon the general views which Mr. Hallam has taken on most questions. There is no doubt that his treatise had a considerable effect in discrediting the theoretical toryism, which had appeared in its most attractive form, as far as English history is concerned, in Hume. The great reform in parliament, which took place 30 years ago, was no doubt facilitated by the popularity of Mr. Hallam's work; and it is probably viewed, at the present day, as in the main an accurate deduction and a fair statement of the principles of the British constitution. After another interval of 10 or 12 years, Mr. Hallam published his third and last great work, the "Introduction to the Literature of Europe in the 15th, 16th, and 17th Centuries" (4 vols. 8vo., 1837-'9). This was prepared under the cloud of sorrow which gathered over his house, in consequence of the death of his eldest son, a young man of the brightest promise. Perhaps it is partly to this bereavement that he refers when he remarks in his introduction: "I have other warnings to bind up my sheaves while I may-my own advancing years, and the gathering in the heavens." The preface to this work contains a comprehensive survey of what had been done before his time in the same department of letters, and sufficiently establishes his claim to have led the way among English writers in a general survey of literary history. The principal writings of his predecessors on the continent are enumerated and fairly criticized. The book

itself is one of too great compass and variety to be executed in all its parts with equal ability. It is, however, a work of original research, conscientiously pursued. Mr. Hallam states in the preface that, as far as he recollects, he has quoted no passage which he has not seen in its own place," in the author from which it is cited. "Without censuring those," he adds, "who suppress the immediate source of their quotations, I may justly say that in nothing I have given to the public has it been practised by myself." Impartiality, good sense, correct taste, freedom from extravagance, and a clear and expressive though not very flexible or attractive style, characterize this, as they do all Mr. Hallam's writings. We are unable to present the reader with many details of Mr. Hallam's personal history. We have already remarked that, though educated to the law, he did not engage in its practice. He attached importance, and justly, to his legal training, as a qualification for writing a history of the constitution, and comments on Hume's deficiency in this respect, treating his great predecessor, however, with commendable respect, considering the difference of their political systems. In his family relations he was at once the happiest and the unhappiest of men; the happiest in being the father of two sons of rare endowments, exemplary character, and the brightest hopes; the unhappiest in being called to part with them both in the morning of their days. Arthur died in 1833, at the age of 22. Henry, on whom the father's affections were concentrated with increased warmth after the loss of his brother, died in 1850, aged 26. When Sir Robert Peel tendered to Mr. Hallam the heritable title of baronet-the highest ever conferred on a man of letters in England till Mr. Macaulay was raised to the peerage-Mr. Hallam said he would be governed by his son's wishes. Henry, on being consulted, said that he was content to be known as the son of Henry Hallam, to whom no title could add dignity. Mr. Hallam received the degree of D.C.L. from the university of Oxford in 1848, and that of LL.D. from Harvard college the same year. In his letter acknowledging his American diploma, he says: "The admiration of literary merit (and I must not now be understood as referring to myself) has become of late years very characteristic of America. It displays itself with a noble, and we may say juvenile enthusiasm, which we are far from equalling in Europe." An edition of Mr. Hallam's historical works appeared in London in 1855-'6, in 9 vols. 8vo.-ARTHUR HENRY, son of the preceding, born in London, Feb. 1, 1811, died in Germany, Sept. 15, 1833. He studied at Eton and at Trinity college, Cambridge, took his degree in 1832, and in the same year was entered of the Inner Temple, and became a student in the office of a London conveyancer. In Ang. 1833, he accompanied his father to the continent, where he contracted a slight illness which brought a chronic disorder to a fatal termina

tion. He was a young man of superior and cultivated mental powers, and left a number of poems and prose writings, which were collected by his father and printed with a memoir for private circulation (London, 1834). His biographical sketches of Petrarch, Voltaire, and Burke, contributed to the "Gallery of Portraits" of the society for the diffusion of useful knowledge, and "Remarks" on Rossetti's Disquisizioni sullo spirito antipapale (1882), appeared anonymously during his lifetime. Mr. Hallam was betrothed to a sister of the poet Tennyson, who commemorates the death of his friend in his "In Memoriam."

HALLE, a city of Prussian Saxony, in the governmental district of Merseburg, distinguished from other places of the same name by the addition an der Saale, situated on the right bank of the Saale and on some of its islets; pop. about 35,000. It consists of Halle proper with 5 suburbs, and of the two ancient towns of Glaucha and Neumark. The streets, except in some modern parts, are generally crooked, narrow, and badly paved. The principal public buildings are the church of St. Mary, with 4 towers, built in the Gothic style about the middle of the 16th century, to which a library of 20,000 volumes and the so called red tower on the market place belong; that of St. Maurice, also built in the Gothic style, and that of St. Ulrich; the cathedral, the city hall, the ruins of the castle of Moritzburg, anciently a residence of the archbishops of Magdeburg, the university, and the Francke institutions in the suburb of Glaucha, containing the bronze statue of their founder. Halle is particularly celebrated for its various educational and other institutions, as well as scientific societies. The university, which was founded in 1694 by Frederic I., and united in 1815, after having been closed by Napoleon in 1806 and 1813, with that of Wittenberg, was most flourishing in the beginning of this century, and shows on the list of its professors the names of Francke, Lange, Semler, Niemeyer, Gesenius, Tholuck, Müller, Guericke, Herzog, Göschen, Witte, Hencke, Wolf, Eberhard, Ersch, Gruber, Michaelis, Vater, Wahl, Gerlach, Leo, Prutz, Eiselen, and others. It is attended now by about 700 students under more than 60 academical teachers, and has a normal, philological, and theological seminary, an academy of the natural sciences, a medical and surgical clinical institute, a school of midwifery, an anatomical theatre, a botanical garden, an observatory, and a library of over 60,000 volumes. The Francke institutions comprise an orphan asylum, several schools, and a printing press. Halle has manufactories of woollen and linen goods, stockings, gloves, silk buttons, hardware, leather, and starch, the last being the most important, and an active commerce favored by the railway lines which connect it with Magdeburg, Berlin, Leipsic, Dresden, and other places, and by the navigation on the Saale. The annual produce of the salt works is about 260,000 cwt.; those in the city belong to a company, and those

out of it to the government. The Halloren, who are mostly engaged in the neighboring salt mines, are believed to be the descendants of the Wendish Slavia; according to others they are of Celtic origin. In the vicinity of the city are the village and castle of Giebichenstein, and a monument erected in commemoration of the Germans who fell in the battle of Leipsic. Halle is first mentioned, as the castle of Halla, under Charlemagne. Otho the Great gave it to the archbishop of Magdeburg, and Otho II. erected it into a city in 981. It became so powerful in the course of time as to contend in the 13th century, often successfully, with its feudal lords, and to resist in 1435 a large army under the elector of Saxony. The reformation was introduced here in its earliest period. The city suffered greatly during the 30 years' war, and came in 1648 into the possession of the house of Brandenburg by the peace of Westphalia. Handel, the great composer, was a native of Halle, and a monument was dedicated to him there in 1859. The Hallische Zeitung, the Neue Hallische Zeitung, and several scientific periodicals, are published in Halle.

HALLECK, FITZ-GREENE, an American poet, born in Guilford, Conn., July 8, 1795. His mother, Mary Eliot of Guilford, was a descendant of John Eliot, the." apostle of the Indians." At the age of 18 he became a clerk in the banking house of Jacob Barker in New York, in which employment he remained for many years. He was also, as he informs us in one of his poetical epistles, "in the cotton trade and sugar line." For a long period previous to the death of John Jacob Astor he was engaged in his business affairs, and was named by him one of the original trustees of the Astor library, a position which he still holds. Since 1849 he has retired from commercial and financial pursuits, and now resides chiefly in his native place. Mr. Halleck wrote verses in his boyhood, some of which, it is said, found their way into the colums of contemporary newspapers; but few of these early effusions have been preserved, and none have been deemed by him worthy of insertion in the collected editions of his poems. His lines to "Twilight," the earliest in date of his collected poems, appeared in the "New York Evening Post" in 1818, and in the succeeding March he assisted Joseph Rodman Drake in contributing the humorous series of "Croaker" papers, then recently commenced by the latter, to the columns of the same journal. Halleck's contributions, originally signed "Croaker, jr.," and subsequently "Croaker and co.," were discontinued after July, 1819, his coadjutor having been compelled by ill health to retire from the undertaking in the previous May. His death in the succeeding year was commemorated by Halleck in one of his most touching poems. In the latter part of 1819 Halleck wrote his longest poem, "Fanny," an amusing satire, in the measure of Byron's "Don Juan," on the fashions, follies, and public characters of the day. It was completed

and printed within 3 weeks of its commencement, and from the variety and pungency of the local and personal allusions enjoyed a great popularity, copies having been circulated in manuscript after the original edition, which was not immediately republished in America, had been exhausted. The authorship of this production, as well as of the "Croaker" papers, was for a long time unacknowledged, although the former and several specimens of the latter are now included in the published editions of Halleck's poems. In 1822-3 he visited Europe, and in 1827 published an edition of his poeins in one volume, two of the finest in the collection, Alnwick Castle and Burns," having been suggested by scenes and incidents of foreign travel. This edition also included the spirited lyric "Marco Bozzaris," originally published in the "New York Review," to which he was an occasional contributor. Enlarged editions have repeatedly appeared since then, those of 1858 (1 vol. 8vo., and 1 vol. 12mo., illustrated) being the latest. His reputation, however, rests mainly upon the few pieces published in his earliest volume, which have probably been more widely read and appreciated than the productions of any of the older American poets who have written so little. In New York and its neighborhood his verses were long cherished above those of any of his countrymen, and throughout the United States "Marco Bozzaris" is still one of the most popular poems in the language. A remarkable characteristic of his poetic genius is its versatility, the 32 pieces which comprise his collected poems containing specimens of delicate local satire, of elegiac or contemplative verse, of martial lyrics, and of animated narrative or playful humor, each excellent in its kind. His versification is easy and harmonious, and, according to the testimony of one of the most eminent of his contemporaries, “in no poet can be found passages which flow with more sweet and liquid smoothness." He is greatly esteemed in private life, and his manners and conversation reflect the genial humor so frequently discernible in his poems.

HALLER, ALBRECHT VON, one of the most learned men of the 18th century, born in Bern, Oct. 16, 1708, died there, Dec. 12, 1777. A member of an eminent patrician family of Switzerland, he received an excellent education, studied theology at the university of Tübingen, and medicine and natural sciences under Boerhaave and other professors at Leyden, where he was graduated in 1726. After having paid a lengthened visit to England and France, he devoted himself for some time in Basel to the study of the higher branches of mathematics under Bernouilli. His delicate health induced him to accompany his friend Johann Gessner on a tour through the Alps, where he gathered the materials afterward developed in his great botanical work, and in his poem on the Alps. In 1729 he returned to Bern, where he soon gained a high reputation as a physician, and founded

an anatomical theatre. In 1735 he was appointed physician of the city hospital and director of the city library, and in the following year professor of botany, medicine, surgery, and anatomy at the newly established university of Göttingen. He founded there an anatomical theatre in 1738, a botanical garden and an anatomical museum in 1739, a lying-in asylum and the royal academy of sciences in 1750, and became president for life of the latter institution, which was opened in the following year. He was ennobled by the emperor Francis I., received complimentary invitations from the faculties of Oxford, Utrecht, Halle, Berlin, and St. Petersburg, was appointed royal councillor and physician by the king of England, and member of the grand council by his native city. In 1753 he relinquished all his trusts, excepting the presidency of the royal academy, and spent the rest of his life in study in Bern, where he became chief magistrate.-Haller is regarded as the father of modern physiology. He founded his system on a thorough knowledge of anatomy and established scientifically a new law, by which he referred the animal functions almost exclusively to two powers, irritability and sensibility. He had evolved this idea as early as 1739, and announced it in 1747, in his Prime Linea Physiologia, and expounded his system in its entire comprehensiveness in his great work, Elementa Physiologia Corporis Humani (Lausanne, 1757-'66, with a posthumous supplement, 1782), which is as celebrated for the elegance of its style as for the importance of its scientific revelations. Among his most useful and laborious works are his Bibliotheca Botanica (Zürich, 1771–2), Bibliotheca Chirurgica (1774-5), Bibliotheca Anatomica (1774-5), and the first part of the Bibliotheca Medicina Practica (Basel, 1776-'88). His Icones Anatomica, which he himself regarded as one of his best works, contains 46 plates, presenting drawings of many of the organs, more particularly of the arteries. His writings and teachings exercised more influence upon the development of physiological as well as medical and botanical science, than those of any other savant of the 18th century. His literary activity was prodigious. Beside numerous contributions to German and French scientific periodicals, he wrote no fewer than 12,000 reviews for the Commentarii Societatis Regiæ Scientiarum Gottingensis, and many novels and descriptive and didactic poems. His best poems are the "Alps," and "On the Origin of Evil." Schlosser, in his "History of the 18th Century," says of them: "They teach an admirable philosophy, which springs not from books or universities, but from the mind and deepest and holiest conviction of the poet." The same historian says of his scientific labors: "His system, his hypotheses, his bold glances, his conclusions with respect to the connection of phenomena, although they have seldom withstood the examination of later inquirers, nevertheless throw a light upon nature, life, and organization, and the constitution of

things, by which the obscurity of the middle ages was dissipated, theology entirely excluded from the science of nature, and the whole life of man enlightened."-KARL LUDWIG VON, a grandson of the preceding, born in Bern, Aug. 1, 1768, died in Soleure, May 20, 1854. He created some sensation in the religious world by his secession from Protestantism, and gained a high reputation in the Roman Catholic church, to which he confessed his spiritual allegiance, by his literary abilities. He held at various times offices in the public service of Switzerland and France, was also for some time professor of history and statistics at Bern, and secretary to the archduke Charles of Austria. Having lost the offices which he had held in France after the revolution of 1830, he returned to his native country, and was at the time of his death one of the leaders of the ultramontane party. His principal work, Restauration der Staatswissenschaften, has been translated into several languages, and partly into French by himself.

HALLEY, EDMUND, LL.D., an English philosopher, born in Haggerston, near London, Oct. 29, 1656, died in Lee, near Greenwich, Jan. 14, 1742. Even while a school boy, he made observations on the variation of the magnetic needle, and at Queen's college, Oxford, devoted himself almost exclusively to astronomy and mathematics. His first published essay was "A Direct and Geometrical Method of finding the Aphelia and Eccentricity of Planets" (1675). In Nov. 1676, he sailed under the patronage of Charles II. and the East India company for St. Helena, to form a catalogue of the fixed stars of the southern hemisphere; he returned in 1678, and the next year published his Catalogus Stellarum Australium, containing the positions of 360 stars, and numerous other interesting observations. In 1678 he was elected a fellow of the royal society, and in 1679, at the request of that society, went to Dantzic, to settle an important astronomical controversy between Hooke and Hevelius. In 1681 he set out on a continental tour, and in December, when near Paris, he discovered that remarkable comet, known by his name, first seen a month before and then lost, which soon afterward attracted the attention of Europe; his prediction of its return was the first of the kind that proved correct. In 1683 he published his "Theory of the Variation of the Magnetic Compass," in which he considers the earth as a vast magnet, having 4 magnetic poles, 2 near its N. and 2 near its S. pole, the needle always being governed by the nearest. In the same year he was led to examine Kepler's laws of the planetary motions, and from them first to infer that the centripetal force always varies inversely as the square of the distance; and on visiting Newton at Cambridge, to obtain aid in proving this geometrically, he was delighted to find that the latter had perfectly demonstrated the laws of the celestial motions. He soon gave the royal society an account of Newton's treatise De Motu, which was entered on their register; and at a

later period he prevailed on the great philosopher to complete his Principia, the first volume of which was exhibited to the society, April 20, 1686, and was printed by Halley at his own expense. In 1686 he published an account of the trade winds and monsoons near the tropics; and among other valuable papers was one in 1691 on the circulation of watery vapors and the origin of springs, in which he was the first to point out that wonderful provision of nature by which a constant circulation of water is kept up between the air and the ocean; and another, showing the importance of observing the conjunctions of the superior planets, as a means of determining the sun's parallax and distance from the earth. In the same year he was a candidate for the Savilian chair of astronomy at Oxford, but failed to obtain it mainly on account of what were regarded as his infidel opinions, though it is now said that the only ground for this charge was, that he asserted the existence of a pre-Adamite earth, out of the ruins of which our present earth was made. In 1692 he published his modified theory of the changes in the magnetic variation, and to test its correctness by observation, obtained from King William the appointment of captain to a vessel, in which in two successive voyages he finished his experiments; returning home in 1700, he published his chart of the compass variations, and received the title of captain in the royal navy, with half pay for life. On the recommendation of Queen Anne, and at the request of the emperor of Germany, he went twice to the Adriatic to plan the formation of a harbor. In 1703, on the death of Dr. Wallis, he was chosen Savilian professor of astronomy at Oxford, and the university conferred on him the honorary title of LL.D. Soon after he began, with Gregory, the publication of the works of the ancient geometers, and several of their treatises, translated and edited by them, appeared in 1706'10. In 1713 he was elected secretary of the royal society, having previously been assistant secretary, and editor of its "Transactions" from 1685 to 1692. Soon after he made valuable experiments with the diving bell, which were published in 1716. In 1720, after the death of Flamsteed, he was appointed astronomer royal; and though now 64 years of age, he continued for 20 years, without an assistant, to carry on the operations of the Greenwich observatory with unremitting diligence. In 1721 he published his method of finding the longitude at sea; and in 1725 drew up his tables for computing the places of the planets, which, however, as he delayed publishing that he might perfect them, did not appear till 1749, after his death. In 1729 he was elected a foreign member of the academy of sciences in Paris; and in 1737 he was struck with paralysis, which gradually gained upon him till his death. M. Mairan, who prepared the eulogy of Halley read to the academy of sciences in 1742, says of him: "While we thought the eulogium of an astronomer, a naturalist, a scholar, and a philosopher comprehended