crats and 118 whigs, beside 5 whigs from New Jersey whose seats were contested. Their admission to vote for speaker would have secured to the whigs the organization of the house. In accordance with custom, Mr. Garland, as clerk of the last house, opened the session by calling the roll of members. When he came to New Jersey he called one member whose seat was not contested, and said he should pass over the other 5, as he did not feel authorized to decide whether or not they were entitled to seats. This gave rise to a great uproar and confusion, which lasted till Dec. 5, when it was terminated by the interposition of John Quincy Adams, and his election as chairman pro tempore. In 1841 Mr. Garland returned to Virginia, and settled on a farm near Petersburg. Engaged unsuccessfully in mercantile business, he lost nearly all his property, and in 1845 he went to St. Louis, and resumed practice as a lawyer. At the time of his death he held a high rank at the bar. Mr. Garland was the author of a "Life of John Randolph" (2 vols. 8vo., New York, 1850).

GARLIC, the bulb of the allium sativum, a plant of the same genus as the onion (A. cepa) and the leek (4. porrum). The plant is perennial, and grows wild in the southern parts of Europe. In most other countries it is cultivated, and has been esteemed from the remotest times as an article of food or as a condiment, and also for the sake of its medicinal qualities. The bulbs, 5 or 6 in number, are found clustered around the base of the stem, enclosed in a common membranous covering, by which they are concealed from view. They are taken up attached to the stem, and when dried in the sun are tied together in bunches like onions. The small bulbs are called cloves of garlic. They are of oblong shape, of the strong peculiar odor called alliaceous, and have a bitter and acrid taste. A highly viscid juice may be expressed from them, so tenacious that when dried it makes a cement for porcelain. By distilling the bulbs with water a very volatile essential oil is obtained, which possesses in a high degree the peculiar properties of the bulbs. It is of so acrid a nature that it will even raise blisters upon the skin. Sulphur is detected in this oil combined with a radical called allyle, consisting of C. Hs. When garlic is used as food or medicine, this oil is rapidly absorbed, and its presence is soon perceived in the breath and in the secretions of the body. It is so penetrating, that when garlic is externally applied, as to the soles of the feet, the smell is said to be observed in the breath and perspiration. Its moderate use is thought to be beneficial for its stimulant properties in quickening the circulation, exciting the nervous system, &c. As a medicine it is most employed in external applications, as a sedative in fevers, and in nervous and spasmodic disorders of children.

GARNET, the name of a mineral species, presenting many varieties; also applied by Dana to designate a section of the silicates; and in

geology it is the name of a rock made up of some variety of the mineral. The garnet is supposed to have been sometimes included by the ancients in their names carbunculus and hyacinthus. In its more perfect forms it is a gem, and when cut and polished bears some resemblance to the ruby in color, transparency, and lustre. Some of the precious varieties are distinguished by the names Syrian and oriental, and also almandine, from Alabanda, the place where, in the time of Pliny, they were cut and polished. These and the black varieties also have been much used in Europe, strung together like beads for necklaces. Those most esteemed in jewelry are obtained from Ceylon, Pegu, and Greenland. A single crystal of only 84 lines by 6 has been sold for about $700. Its crystals are rhomboidal and trapezoidal dodecahedrons and variously modified forms. Its hardness is from 6.5 to 7.5; specific gravity 3.15 to 4.3. It is met with of various colors, as red, brown, black, yellow, white, and green, and with a vitreous or resinous lustre. According to its composition it has been divided into 6 subspecies, all of which pass into one another by insensible shades of difference; they are all silicates of different protoxides or peroxides; as: 1, the alumina-lime garnet, a silicate of alumina and lime, of which the cinnamon stone or essonite is an example; 2, the alumina-magnesia garnet; 3, the alumina-iron garnet, a silicate of the protoxide of iron and lime, as almandine and a variety of the common garnet; 4, alumina-manganese garnet, called also manganesian garnet; 5, iron-lime garnet, composed of silicates of the peroxide of iron and of lime, as the black garnet and a variety of the common garnet; 6, lime-chrome garnet, as the emerald green ouvarovite of Russia. The silicic acid in these varies from 34 to 44 per cent. Their composition is represented by the general formula 3RO, SiO3, R, O., SiO,, in which RO represents either one of the protoxides that may be present, and R. O, either the alumina (Al, 0.), or the peroxide of iron (Fe, O3), or of chrome (Cr, O3). Garnets are easily melted by the blowpipe; and some varieties, as the melanite or black garnet, found in the lavas of Vesuvius, appear to be a direct product of the fusion of their ingredients. The ironlime garnets, of which this is a variety, containing from 20 to 30 per cent. of peroxide of iron, and about the same proportion of lime, might be advantageously employed both as iron ore and flux in the manufacture of iron, mixed with other ores more rich in iron and deficient in silica. They frequently occur in the vicinity of iron ores, and in beds of great extent, forming a true garnet rock, and from their highly ferruginous appearance have in some instances been mistaken for iron ores; though when worked they have been condemned from their true character not being understood. Garnet of this character is found in the highlands on the west side of the Hudson river, containing by analyses of two varieties by Dr. A. A. Hayes:

Similar qualities are also met with in the iron region of New Jersey. They frequently contain traces of titanium and of tin.-Crystals of garnet are common in the granite rocks and the metamorphic slates and limestones in almost all localities where these are found; but when most abundant and large, they are commonly rough and unsightly. In the gold region they abound in the slates, and in some instances where the rock that contained them has crumbled away they are left loose upon the surface, so that they might easily be shovelled up by cart loads.

GARNETT, JAMES MERCER, an American politician and agriculturist, born at Elmwood, Essex co., Va., June 8, 1770, died there in May, 1843. He was for several years a member of the legislature of Virginia, and was a representative in congress from 1805 to 1809. In 1829'30 he was a member of the convention which revised the constitution of Virginia. He acted with the democratic party, and was engaged in several political controversies of note in their day. One of these was with Mathew Carey the protectionist, in which Mr. Garnett contended for free trade. The greater part of his life was zealously devoted to the cause of education and the promotion of agriculture. He maintained a school at his own house for 12 years, and was foremost in introducing_improved methods of education into Virginia. For more than 20 years he was president of the agricultural society of Fredericsburg, and exerted himself strenuously for the formation of the United States agricultural society, of which he was chosen the first president. He was a fluent and racy writer, and his contributions to various journals on agricultural subjects were widely read and exercised great influence.

GARNIER, ADOLPHE, a French eclectic philosopher, born in Paris, March 27, 1801. He aided Jouffroy in translating the works of Thomas Reid, was in 1827 appointed professor of philosophy in the college at Versailles, and afterward promoted to a chair in Paris. He meanwhile published his Précis de psychologie, and a complete edition of the philosophical writings of Descartes. In 1838 he succeeded Jouffroy as lecturer on philosophy at the Sorbonne, and in the following year produced his Comparaison de la psychologie et de la phrenologie. He published in 1850 a Traité de morale sociale, and in 1853 a Traité des facultés de l'âme, which won a prize from the French academy.

GARNIER, CHARLES GEORGES THOMAS, a French author, born in Auxerre, Sept. 21, 1746, died in the same place, Jan. 24, 1795. He was educated at the college of Plessis, and became an advocate, though the weakness of his voice

did not permit him to speak in public. In 1770 he began to publish in the Mercure de France, under the nom de plume of "Mademoiselle Raigner de Malfontaine," dramatic proverbs, whose ingenuity and sprightliness attracted the attention of the governess of the young princess de Condé, and Garnier was soon engaged to write proverbs to be acted for the special amusement of the princess at the abbey of Panthemont. In 1791 he was made commissaire du roi at Paris, and in 1793 was sent by the revolutionary government to his native city as commissioner, which post he held till his death. Among his works are Nouveaux proverbes dramatiques (8vo., Paris, 1784), and various novels. He also collected and edited the Cabinet des fees (41 vols. 8vo., Paris, 1785); Voyages imaginaires, songes, visions et romans merveilleux (39 vols. 8vo., Paris, 1787).

GARNIER, CLEMENT JOSEPH, a French political economist, born at Beuil in Sardinia (which then belonged to France), Oct. 3, 1813, studied at the superior school of commerce in Paris, and was for some time professor and director of studies there. From 1846 to 1856 he filled the newly created chair of political economy in the school of roads and bridges, and since the latter year he has officiated in the same capacity in the school of commerce. From 1845 to 1855 he edited the Journal des économistes. In 1846, during the free trade agitation in England, he formed in concert with Bastiat, Chevalier, Faucher, and others, a free trade association, of which he became secretary; but it was dissolved in 1848. In 1842 he had contributed to the establishment of the society of political economy, and still officiates as its perpetual secretary. He was also one of the founders of the peace congress in Paris (1849), and a member of the statistical congress at Brussels (1853), and at Paris (1855). In 1853 he established in concert with M. N. Bourgeois the Nouveau journal des connaissances utiles. The 3d edition of his Éléments d'économie politique appeared in 1856.

GARNIER, GERMAIN, a French political economist, born in Auxerre, Nov. 8, 1754, died in Paris, Oct. 4, 1821. He was secretary to Adelaide, aunt of Louis XVI., and was noted for slight Anacreontic verses, when in 1790 he became a member of the monarchial club formed in opposition to that of the Jacobins. He emigrated in 1792, returned in 1795, became a prefect under the consulate, and afterward a senator, count of the empire, and president of the senate (1809 to 1811). In 1814 he favored the restoration, was made peer of France, removed from Paris during the Hundred Days, and became minister of state after the second restoration. In political economy he belongs to the school of Quesnay. His most esteemed works are an Abrégé des principes de l'économie politique (Paris, 1796); the best French translation of Adam Smith, to which he added many notes (Paris, 1805); and a Histoire de la monnaie depuis les temps de la plus haute antiquité jusqu'au règne de Charlemagne (Paris, 1809). He

also translated some of the novels of Godwin and Mrs. Radcliffe.

GARNIER-PAGES, ÉTIENNE JOSEPH LOUIS, a French politician, born in Marseilles, Dec. 27, 1801, died in Paris, June 23, 1841. His family being reduced in circumstances, he was educated amid the hardships of poverty. In 1822 he was bookkeeper in a commercial house with a salary of $200 a year. In 1825 he attended lectures at the école de droit, and was admitted to the bar. He became a member of the celebrated association Aide-toi, le ciel t'aidera, and actively participated in the revolution of July, 1830. In 1881 he was elected to the chamber of deputies, and took his seat among the members of the opposition. He slowly established his influence by boldness of opinion and moderation of speech. He was not a brilliant orator, but an excellent debater, especially upon financial matters. His ultimate aim was a republic; but he desired to obtain his object by gradual reform. His career was cut short by an early death.-LOUIS ANTOINE, a French politician, half brother of the preceding, born in Marseilles in 1805. While employed as a merchandise broker in Paris he found time to attend with his brother at the sittings of the secret associations which aided in the revolution of July, 1830. He organized the means of resistance among the workmen of the district where he resided, and bore arms himself. In 1842 he was elected to the chamber of deputies, and became at once one of the stanchest members of the opposition, and in 1847 was one of the most active promoters of the reform agitation. He was conspicuous among those who in Feb. 1848, appeared at the banquet of Paris, in spite of the prohibition of the government. On Feb. 24 he was appointed a member of the provisional government, then mayor of Paris, and on March 5 he succeeded M. Goudchaux as minister of finance. As a member of the constituent assembly, he submitted a remarkable report on the financial situation of the republic, and left the finance department to enter the executive commission of government appointed by the assembly. On the insurrection of June this commission had to resign its power to Gen. Cavaignac; and Garnier-Pagès, after the expiration of his term as deputy, retired to private life. GARONNE (anc. Garumna), a river in the S. of France, rising in the Spanish valley of Aran, in the central Pyrénées, near the foot of Mt. Maladetta, and flowing N. W. into France, which it enters at a place called Pont-du-Roi, in the department of Haute-Garonne. It runs thence N. E. to Toulouse, whence it flows generally N. W.; it passes the towns of St. Béat, Montrejeau, St. Martory, Cazères (where it becomes navigable), Carbonne, Muret, Toulouse, Verdun, Agen, St. Macaire, and Bordeaux, a few miles below which it is joined by the Dordogne and forms the estuary or river known as the Gironde. Its chief affluents on the right bank are the Ariège, Tarn, Lot, and Dropt; on the left, the Save, Gimone, Gers, Baise, Avance, and Ciron. Its length is about 352 m., of which 262 are

navigable; but including its feeders, which communicate with 12 departments, the total river navigation of its basin may be stated at 1,000 m. Large vessels can ascend to Bordeaux, where the channel is about 800 yards wide and from 10 to 15 fathoms deep. At Toulouse it is joined by the canal du Midi, by means of which and by this river the Mediterranean is connected with the bay of Biscay. The basin of the Garonne includes a tract of country about 185 m. in average length and breadth. The upper part of its course lies through narrow defiles and is much obstructed; from Toulouse it is broad but shallow, and navigation is more or less impeded by the debris which it brings down, even as far as Marmande, about 50 m. above Bordeaux. Its banks are remarkable for fertility and picturesque scenery.

GARRARD, a central co. of Ky., bounded N. by the Kentucky river, and E. by Dick's river; area estimated at 250 sq. m.; pop. in 1850, 10,237, of whom 3,176 were slaves. It has a hilly or rolling surface, and a soil of more than common fertility, watered by a number of small streams. The staples are grain, horses, cattle, mules, and swine. The productions in 1850 amounted to 34,920 bushels of wheat, 973,875 of Indian corn, 169,940 of oats, 50,150 lbs. of tobacco, and 30,255 of wool. There were 35 corn and flour mills, 8 saw mills, 3 tanneries, 1 newspaper office, 14 churches, and 115 pupils attending public schools. Value of real estate in 1855, $2,578,678. The county was formed in 1796, and named in honor of James Garrard, of Kentucky. Capital, Lancaster.

GARRETTSON, FREEBORN, a minister of the Methodist Episcopal church in the United States, born in Maryland in 1752, died in New York, Sept. 26, 1827. He entered the ministry in 1775, travelled extensively in several of the states, and in 1784 went as a missionary to Nova Scotia. In 1788 he commenced his labors in the state of New York. In 1791 he married Miss Livingston of Rhinebeck, and confined his subsequent labors to New York, where he was eminently successful. He was a very popular and influential preacher in the Methodist church, and is now frequently referred to as a special friend of the slave, having emancipated a number belonging to him. At his death he made provision in his will for the perpetual support of a missionary.

GARRICK, DAVID, an English actor, born in Hereford, Feb. 20, 1716, died in London, Jan. 20, 1779. His grandfather Garric, or Garrique, was a French Protestant who took refuge in England after the revocation of the edict of Nantes. His father, a captain in the English army, settled at Lichfield on half pay, and with difficulty maintained a family of 7 children. At the age of 10 David was sent to Mr. Hunter's grammar school. He was a lively, volatile boy, a great mimic, and at 11 acted in a play, the "Recruiting Officer," before a select audience with great applause. He was manager of the company, and applied to Johnson for a prologue,

but without success. In 1728 or '29 he went to Lisbon to visit an uncle, a considerable wine merchant. Here he amused dinner parties by repeating verses and popular speeches. But he returned the next year to England, and attended the theatres at London during occasional visits there. At 18 he was one of the 3 scholars at Dr. Johnson's academy. In March, 1736, he set out with his master for London. Johnson and Garrick entered the metropolis with little money and a single letter of introduction. Garrick now proposed to study law; he even entered at Lincoln's Inn, but poverty interrupted his studies. His uncle soon after died, leaving him £1,000, and he next commenced business as a wine merchant, in connection with his brother Peter, but the partnership was soon dissolved. Foote used to say that he remembered Garrick when, "with 3 quarts of vinegar in his cellar," he called himself a wine merchant. He was now constant at the theatres. He wrote theatrical criticisms, practised declamation, and in the summer of 1741 made his first appearance as an actor at Ipswich, under the assumed name of Lyddal, taking the part of Aboan in the play of "Oroonoko." His face was blackened, and he trembled with diffidence; but the provincial audience was delighted. He soon tried comic parts, and crowds came to see him; as Harlequin his success was complete. But when he applied for employment to the managers of Drury Lane and Covent Garden, both rejected him. He made his first appearance in London at a little playhouse in Goodman's fields, Oct. 19, 1741, acting Richard III. to a small audience with great effect. His fame spread rapidly; the great theatres were deserted, and all the fashion came to Goodman's fields; Garrick's natural acting charmed a public weary of the rant and affectation of Macklin or Quin. He next made an engagement at Drury Lane for £500 a year. In 1742 he went to Dublin, and was received with great enthusiasm. In 1743 he gained the friendship of Pitt, afterward earl of Chatham, and of Lyttleton. Pitt wrote him complimentary verses, and Lyttleton praised him in his "Dialogues of the Dead." Garrick was now the first of English actors; he excelled in comedy, farce, tragedy, and pantomime. In 1745 he again visited Dublin, and was for a time joint manager there with Mr. Sheridan. In 1747 he bought a half interest in Drury Lane theatre, and on Sept. 20 opened his management with the famous prologue written by Johnson. He soon after brought out Johnson's " Irene" with considerable profit to the author. In July, 1749, Garrick married the German dancer, Mlle. Violette, who is said to have brought him £6,000. She was accomplished, intelligent, and a faithful wife, and survived him till 1822, when she died suddenly at the age of 98. In 1753 Garrick brought out the "Gamester," by Edwin Moore; he refused Home's "Douglas" in 1756. He was singularly sensitive, trembled before adverse criticism, and assiduously courted the critics. In Sept. 1763, he went to the con

tinent, and was received every where with attention and respect. He returned in 1765, and in November reappeared in "Much Ado about Nothing," at the command of the king, amid unbounded applause, having opened the performance with an address to the public which was called for on the 10 succeeding nights. In Sept. 1769, he arranged a jubilee in honor of Shakespeare at Stratford-on-Avon, which continued 3 days, and which he afterward represented for 92 successive nights at Drury Lane. In 1773, his partner, Mr. Lacy, having died, the whole management of the theatre fell to his charge. His health failing, he now seldom acted; and on June 10, 1776, after having played a round of his old and favorite characters, he took his leave of the stage in the part of Don Felix, in the comedy of the "Wonder," the performances being for the benefit of the fund for the relief of decayed actors, which he had originated. A crowded and distinguished audience was present, and he closed the evening with a farewell address which drew tears from them and himself. Having amassed a very considerable fortune, he now retired to enjoy it. His villa at Hampton was adorned with all the charms of luxury and taste. Bishops and princes visited the retired actor, and Hannah More here passed many agreeable hours. His later years were filled with suffering. The gout and gravel, to which he had long been subject, returned upon him with increasing severity. He endeavored to maintain his usual gayety, and was passing the Christmas holidays at the seat of Earl Spencer, when a sudden attack prostrated him. He was carried to his house in the Adelphi, London, and there died. He was buried on Feb. 1, 1779, with great splendor; all that was eminent in London followed the comedian to his grave. He was buried beneath the monument of Shakespeare, and here a monument has been raised to his memory at the expense of one of his admirers, Mr. Albany Wallis. Garrick's talents were singularly versatile. He wrote farces and comic pieces, conversed well, and was a member of the literary club. He succeeded in every kind of acting. His comic turn led him to delight in broad farces, in feats of dexterity and ludicrous transformations. As Hamlet he filled his audience with horror and melancholy; in the part of Lear he rose to the height of tragic power. Yet he labored under several disadvantages. He was of middle size, delicate in form, and quick in movement, wanting that dignity of appearance with which nature has endowed other actors. His memory, too, sometimes failed him, and he would repeat a line before he could recover himself. But his voice was melodious and clear, his countenance animated, and his sensitive temperament, even in his silence, governed the spectator. His thrills of feeling communicated themselves by look, gesture, and position. He felt the emotion he inspired. He was a man capable of many generous acts, somewhat vain, but good-humored and placable, a kind friend, and charitable to

the poor. In spite of a certain want of dignity in his manners, and a constant affectation, he was respected and liked by his contemporaries. Dr. Johnson, who dictated to Davies many particulars of his life, always spoke of him as kind-hearted and honest, as well as great.

GARRISON, WILLIAM LLOYD, an American abolitionist, born in Newburyport, Mass., Dec. 10, 1805. His parents were natives of the province of New Brunswick. His father, Abijah Garrison, was master of a vessel engaged in the West India trade, and a man of some literary ability and taste; but he became intemperate, and, under the influence of that vicious habit, went away from his family while his children were young, and never returned. The mother, left in utter poverty, became a professional nurse, and in 1814 went to Lynn, taking William with her, and placing him with Gamaliel Oliver, a Quaker, to learn the trade of a shoemaker. He was extremely small for his age, and his knees trembled under the weight of the lapstone. His mother, finding that the business did not suit him, sent him back to Newburyport at the end of 3 or 4 months, placing him under the care of Deacon Ezekiel Bartlett. In order to relieve his mother from the necessity of paying his board, he employed himself when out of school in assisting the deacon in his occupation as a woodsawyer, going with him from house to house. At school he was taught reading, writing, ciphering, and a smattering of grammar. In 1815 he went with his mother to Baltimore, where he remained a year, in the capacity of a chore boy, and then returned to Newburyport. In 1818 he was apprenticed to Moses Short, a cabinet-maker, in Haverhill; but, as he strongly disliked the trade, he persuaded Mr. Short to release him. In October of the same year he was indentured to Ephraim W. Allen, editor of the "Newburyport Herald," to learn the art of printing. This occupation suited his tastes; he quickly became an adept at the mechanical part of the business, and when only 16 or 17 years of age began to write upon political and other topics for the "Herald," carefully preserving his incognito. It was a long time before Mr. Allen learned that the correspondent whose communications he eagerly sought and commended was his own apprentice, who often had the satisfaction of putting his own articles into type, and once received through the post-office a letter of thanks from his master, with a request that he would continue to write. He soon commenced writing also for the "Haverhill Gazette," the "Salem Gazette," and the "Boston Commercial Gazette," all of which received his contributions with favor. The editor of the journal last named, Samuel L. Knapp, Esq., appreciated his articles very highly. A series of articles which he wrote for the "Salem Gazette," under the signature of "Aristides," attracted much attention in political circles, being commended by Robert Walsh, at that time editor of the Philadelphia "National Gazette," who attributed them to the venerable Timothy Pickering.

In 1824, during the somewhat protracted absence of Mr. Allen, he edited the "Herald," superintending the printing at the same time. The struggle of the Greeks for freedom fired his youthful zeal, insomuch that at one time he seriously contemplated entering the academy at West Point, to qualify himself for a military career. In 1826, his apprenticeship being honorably closed, he became the proprietor and editor of a journal in his native town, called the "Free Press." He toiled hard, generally putting his editorial articles in type without committing them to paper, but the enterprise proved unsuccessful. He then went to Boston, where he worked for a time as a journeyman. In 1827 he became the editor of the "National Philanthropist" in that city, the first journal ever established to advocate the cause of "total abstinence;" but before the end of the year the proprietorship changed, and he was induced, early in 1828, to join a friend in the publication of the "Journal of the Times" at Bennington, Vt. This journal supported John Quincy Adams for the presidency, and was in part devoted to peace, temperance, anti-slavery, and other reforms; but it failed to receive an adequate support. During his residence in Bennington, he produced considerable excitement upon the subject of slavery, not only in that place but throughout the state, in consequence of which there was transmitted to congress an anti-slavery memorial more numerously signed than any similar paper previously submitted to that body. Benjamin Lundy, an advocate of the gradual abolition of slavery, was then engaged in publishing the "Genius of Universal Emancipation" at Baltimore. He had met Mr. Garrison during the previous year in Boston, and received from him timely assistance in bringing his cause to the notice of the people of that city. Admiring his talents and zeal, and wishing for a coadjutor, he went to Bennington, and engaged Mr. Garrison to join him in the editorship of his journal. On July 4, 1829, Mr. Garrison delivered in Park street church, Boston, at a religious and philanthropic celebration of the day, an address which excited general attention by the boldness and vigor of its assault upon slavery. In the autumn of that year he began his labors in Baltimore as joint editor with Mr. Lundy of the "Genius of Universal Emancipation," and in the first number issued under his supervision he made a distinct avowal of the doctrine of immediate emancipation as the right of the slave and the duty of the master. Mr. Lundy did not concur with him in this doctrine, but as each of them appended his initials to his articles, the difference interposed no barrier to hearty cooperation. The journal, by its bold and uncompromising tone, produced considerable excitement among the supporters of slavery, while Mr. Garrison's denunciations of the colonization society aroused the hostility of some who, upon other grounds, were inclined to sympathize with him. An event soon occurred which resulted in a dissolution of his connection with the paper.