out stamping, the cloth being pushed in a succession of folds through a low trough, the top of which is made by weights to press upon these folds and resist their progress through. The soap is washed out after the falling, and the nap is raised by teazling. To properly full a piece of ordinary broadcloth it has been customary to allow from 60 to 65 hours, and 11 lbs. of soap; the shrinkage in width is from 12 quarters to 7, and in length from 54 yards to 40. A piece of Venetian broadcloth 54 yards shrank to 45 yards in length, and from 7 quarters 3 nails to 6 quarters 2 nails in width, and required 12 hours and from 6 to 7 lbs. of soap.

FULMINATES (Lat. fulmen, a thunderbolt), salts of fulminic acid and some base, as gold, platinum, silver, and mercury, all of which possess the property of exploding with more or less violence. The last two only are applied to any practical purpose. Fulminating mercury (represented by the formula 2Hg O, Cya O2) is the compound used in the manufacture of percussion caps. It is prepared, as recommended by Dr. Ure, by dissolving at a moderate heat 1 ounce weight of mercury in 73 fluid ounces of nitric acid of specific gravity 1.4, turning this into 10 fluid ounces of alcohol of specific gravity .83, the temperature of the acid and mercury being about 130° F. It is well to employ for dissolving the mercury a glass retort furnished with a receiver of glass, which is kept cool by a current of water. The acid vapors which are condensed in this should be returned to the retort. When the mercury is dissolved, the solution should be slowly introduced into the matrass containing the alcohol, the capacity of which should be at least 6 times that of the liquids. Bubbles of gas soon begin to escape from the bottom of the mixture, and the whole is soon thrown into a rapidly bubbling condition. It becomes frothy and white; highly combustible vapors escape, which should be allowed to pass off into the air without coming in contact with flame or any heated. surface. These vapors consist of various products of the oxidation of the alcohol, as aldehyde, acetic acid, formic acid, and nitrous, acetic, and formic ethers. They may be condensed and converted to use in other operations; but any obstruction thus presented to their free escape is regarded as injuriously affecting the main object of the operation. A considerable quantity of them were condensed by Mr. Samuel Guthrie of Sackett's Harbor, N. Y., whose experiments will be noticed hereafter. The effervescence ceasing, the contents of the matrass are turned upon a double filter of paper, and thoroughly washed with pure cold water, till the washings cease to redden litmus paper. When quite drained, the filter is removed from the funnel, and spread open with its contents upon a plate of copper or stone ware, raised by steam or hot water to the temperature of 212° F. It is thus dried, and may then be put away in paper parcels of 100 grains each, which are to be kept protected from moisture. The salt when well prepared is

in small sparkling crystals of brownish gray color, which moistened with water upon a slip of paper appear transparent. They dissolve in 130 times their weight of boiling water, leaving no residuum if pure. As the water cools, the fulminate reappears in pearly spangles. Fulminate of mercury explodes at a heat somewhat below 370° F., or by being struck smartly between two hard metallic surfaces. Rubbing it between two wooden surfaces will produce the same effect. When moistened with 5 per cent. of water, the portion struck may explode without communicating the effect to the portions in contact. Fulminate of mercury may be fired in contact with gunpowder without igniting this, even when covered loosely with it; but when the powder is packed in a tube and the fulminate in a percussion cap is exploded in contact with it, the gunpowder is more instantaneously ignited throughout than by any other mode of firing. The projectile effect of 10 parts as formerly fired is thus obtained from 83 parts.In the manufacture of percussion caps the French use 1 kilogramme of mercury to produce 11 kilogrammes of fulminate, which is sufficient for 40,000 caps. They grind the mercurial salt with 30 per cent. of water upon a marble table with a wooden muller, mixing 6 parts of gunpowder with 10 of fulminate. This when dried forms the composition which is introduced into the caps-about 1 grain to 4 caps. Dr. Ure recommends a solution of mastic in spirits of turpentine as the fittest medium for attaching the fulminate to the bottoms of the caps. Instead of using the fulminate alone, or with gunpowder, as practised by the French, the English mix with every 3 parts of it 5 parts of chlorate of potash, 1 part of sulphur, and 1 of powdered glass. Nitre is also recommended in the proportion of of the fulminate, mixed with it when it contains 20 per cent. of water. Mr. Samuel Guthrie of Sackett's Harbor, N. Y., who performed a series of practical experiments on a large scale upon these compounds, found that a most efficient preparation was made by mixing 1 part of oxide of tin with 3 parts of fulminating mercury, and grinding them together with a stiff solution of starch. The starch gave cohesiveness to the grain without injuring its explosive qualities. Mr. Guthrie's experiments are recorded in the "American Journal of Science" for Jan. 1832. They are highly interesting for their practical character and applications, and the extreme hazard which attended them. It was in the course of these experiments that Mr. Guthrie made the discovery of chloroform, also discovered about the same time in France and Germany. The original fulminating powder, patented by the Rev. Mr. Forsyth in 1807, consisted only of chlorate of potash, sulphur, and charcoal. In the manufacture of percussion caps a drop of gum is introduced into the bottom of each one, and the fulminating powder is dropped in upon this. A coating of varnish is sometimes afterward applied to protect them from moisture. It was represented by an exhibitor at the Lon

don exhibition in 1851, that 1,300,000,000 caps were manufactured yearly for sporting guns in Europe, which involved a consumption of 396,000 lbs. of copper.-Fulminating silver (2Ag O, Cy2 O2) is prepared like fulminating mercury, except that the mercury is replaced by fine silver, and the nitric acid solution is allowed to become cool before it is turned into the alcohol. Or it may be made by introducing finely pulverized nitrate of silver into concentrated alcohol contained in a matrass, and after shaking it well adding as much fuming nitric acid as there was alcohol. On boiling, the nitrate of silver is first dissolved, then decomposed, and a flocculent precipitate separates, which is formed of an agglomeration of little needles of fulminate of silver. When this ceases to form, water is added, and the mixture is filtered, the washing being continued till there is no further acid reaction. The precipitate is then cautiously dried. This compound is so extremely dangerous that its manufacture ought to be entirely abandoned. It is used only for explosive toys, which are made of little glass balls of the size of peas, into which the fulminate is introduced in a moist state and dried. They are enveloped in a bit of blotting paper, and when used are exploded by throwing them upon the ground. Mr. Guthrie mentions his having suffered severely from explosions in his experiments; and in 1832 Dr. Robert Hare was dangerously injured by the explosion of a quantity of the feathery fulminate, which was nearly enough to fill an ounce bottle. It ignited as he was in the act of pouring it out upon the face of a hammer, as he had frequently done before. The explosion could be accounted for only on the supposition that a particle of the powder might have been compressed between the neck of the vial and the face of the hammer. Three fingers of his right hand were broken, and his assistant and a pupil were also injured. An English chemist named Hennel is reported to have been not long since killed by the explosion of about half a pound of the fulminate. He was torn in pieces, and his limbs were thrown in different directions. It is recommended never to keep the fulminates in glass vials, but in pasteboard cases, covered loosely with a card. They have been known to explode spontaneously, from no other cause apparently than a jarring motion in the room crowding the particles more closely together. An interesting paper by Prof. William H. Ellet upon the compound of cyanogen, including the fulminating salts, may be found in the "American Journal of Science" for July, 1830.-A compound is described as fulminating powder, into the composition of which fulminic acid does not enter. It is a mixture of 3 parts of nitre, 2 of dry carbonate of potash, and 1 of sulphur, the materials to be ground together in a warm mortar. If placed on a shovel over a fire, the compound melts at a temperature of about 330° and violently explodes. Another similar explosive mixture consists of 1 part of yellow prussiate of potash, 2 of chlorate of potash,

and 1 of sugar well dried, the whole to be ground and then intimately mixed.

FULMINIC ACID, one of the isomeric modifications of cyanic acid, represented by the formula Cy, O2, 2HO. Its compounds are distinguished for their explosive character, in which they differ from those of cyanic acid. All attempts to obtain it in an isolated condition have failed from its tendency to instantaneous decomposition with explosion.

FULTON, the name of counties in several of the United States. I. An E. co. of New York, drained by Sacandaga river and E. Canada creek; area, about 530 sq. m.; pop. in 1855, 23,284. The soil is fertile and the surface uneven, with several mountainous elevations. The productions in 1855 were 33,903 tons of hay, 11,145 bushels of wheat, 355,855 of oats, 155,733 of Indian corn, 182,964 of potatoes, and 840,397 lbs. of butter. There were 9 grist mills, 3 paper mills, 90 saw mills, 2 woollen factories, 25 tanneries, 1 brick yard, 5 lime factories, 2 newspaper offices, 109 school houses, and 39 churches. Assessed value of real estate in 1856, $3,862,000. The N. Y. central railroad passes near the S. boundary of the county. Formed from Montgomery co. in 1838, and named in honor of Robert Fulton. Capital, Johnstown. II. A S. co. of Penn., bordering on Maryland, and drained by Conoloway and Licking creeks, tributaries of the Potomac ; area, 380 sq. m.; pop. in 1850, 7,567. Its E. boundary is formed by Cove mountain; Sideling hill lies on its W. frontier, and between the two are fertile valleys. The uplands produce timber, which forms one of the chief staples. Tan bark, hay, and grain are also exported. The productions in 1850 were 83,758 bushels of wheat, 50,835 of Indian corn, 49,075 of oats, 4,752 tons of hay, 100,260 lbs. of butter, and 13,094 of wool. There were 18 corn and flour mills, 5 saw mills, 3 wool-carding mills, 10 tanneries, 1 newspaper office, 20 churches, and 1,570 pupils attending public schools. The county was formed from Bedford co. in 1848. Capital, McConnellsburg. III. A N. co. of Ark., bordering on Missouri, and drained by the N. fork of White river; area, 860 sq. m.; pop. in 1854, 2,269, of whom 65 were slaves. It has a hilly surface and a good soil, suitable for grain and pasturage. The productions in 1854 were 52,071 bushels of Indian corn, 3,667 of wheat, 11,538 of oats, and 30 bales of cotton. Capital, Pilot Hill. IV. A S. W. co. of Ky., bounded S. by Tennessee, and separated from Missouri on the W. and N. W. by the Mississippi river; area, about 200 sq. m.; pop. in 1850, 4,446, of whom 943 were slaves. The surface is somewhat diversified, and the soil generally fertile. The principal exports are tobacco, grain, and live stock. The productions in 1850 were 236,315 bushels of Indian corn, 25,494 of oats, 222,482 lbs. of tobacco, and 4,209 of wool. There were 2 grist mills, 1 saw mill, 1 tannery, 1

newspaper office, 7 churches, and 278 pupils attending public and other schools. The county

letter to the governor of his native state, pointing out the advantages of canals over turnpike roads; and sent a copy of the work to President Washington, who returned him a flattering acknowledgment. Having obtained a patent in England for canal improvements, Fulton went to France with the view of introducing them there, but his attention was soon diverted to other objects. In 1797 he took up his residence at Paris with Mr. Joel Barlow, with whom he formed a most intimate friendship, which continued through life. With Mr. Barlow he remained 7 years, during which he devoted himself to the study of the modern languages, and the sciences connected with his profession. At this time he devised the submarine boat, afterward styled a nautilus, connected with which were machines, then called submarine bombs, afterward known as torpedoes. This invention he offered several times to the French government, and once to the Dutch ambassador at Paris, without exciting their favorable attention. Negotiations were subsequently opened with him by the British government, which induced him to visit London in May, 1804. Here he had interviews with Mr. Pitt and Lord Mellville, and explained to them the nature of his invention. Mr. Pitt was polite enough to say that if introduced into practice the torpedo could not fail to annihilate all military marines, but Lord Melville condemned the nautilus without a moment's consideration. In June a commission was appointed to examine Mr. Fulton's projects, at the head of which was Sir Joseph Banks. Many weeks elapsed before they gave any attention to the subject, and they then reported the submarine boat as impracticable. In Oct. 1805, he was permitted to experiment on a Danish brig of 200 tons burden with a carcass of 170 lbs. of powder. In 15 minutes from the application of the carcass the explosion took place; the brig, according to Fulton's account, making no more resistance than a bag of feathers, and going to pieces like a shattered egg shell. Notwithstanding this success, Fulton was disappointed in his hopes of government patronage, and at length embarked for his native country. Previous to leaving France, Fulton had superintended the execution of the plates of the splendid edition of the "Columbiad," printed in Philadelphia in 1807, expending on it some $5,000; whence he derived a pecuniary interest in the work, which he relinquished by will to the widow of Mr. Barlow. The original paintings from which these plates were executed formed a part of the valuable collection he left to his family. On his return he brought with him a family piece representing Mr. West and his wife, and a portrait of himself, all from the pencil of that celebrated artist, with his "Ophelia" and "King Lear," which Fulton had purchased at a sale by the royal academy in 1805. In Dec. 1806, he arrived in New York, and immediately devoted himself to the development and introduction of his plans for sub

marine war and steam navigation. In the month after landing he went to Washington with his models and drawings, which he explained to the heads of departments, and made a favorable impression. A certain expenditure was authorized by the government to prosecute the experiments with his torpedoes. The probability of a rupture with England, consequent on the affair of the Leopard and Chesapeake, made the summer of 1807 propitious to the patronage of his project, and on July 20 he "decomposed" a large hulk brig in the harbor of New York with a torpedo containing 70 lbs. of powder. In 1810 he again visited Washington, and at Kalorama, the seat of his friend Barlow, explained some improvements in his plans to Mr. Jefferson, Mr. Madison, and a number of members of congress assembled on his invitation. So successful was he in his explanations that congress at once appropriated $5,000 for further experiments, to be prosecuted under the direction of the navy department. In the months of Sept. and Oct. commissioners appointed by the secretary met several times in the harbor of New York to report on Fulton's experiments. The sloop of war Argus had been prepared to defend herself against them under the orders of Commodore Rodgers, and the result was that she was so ingeniously defended that all Fulton's means of attack proved unavailing. Various reports were made by the commissioners, but Commodore Rodgers did not hesitate to decide peremptorily against Mr. Fulton's system, and to pronounce every part of it wholly impracticable. Fulton continued to believe in it, but on the conclusion of these experiments found himself too fully occupied with other pursuits to renew them. At an early period Fulton's attention had been turned to steam navigation. In Sept. 1793, he had addressed a letter to Earl Stanhope, proposing to communicate to him the principle of an invention "respecting the moving of ships by the means of steam." While domiciliated with Barlow at Paris he formed the acquaintance of Chancellor Livingston, then U. S. minister to France. Livingston had previously been connected with Nicholas Roosevelt and John Stevens in steamboat experiments at home. He now entered into the views of Fulton as they had been explained to Stanhope, and at once offered to provide the necessary funds for an experiment, and to contract for the introduction of the new method, if successful, into the United States. In 1798 an act was passed by the legislature of New York, repealing the act of 1787 in favor of John Fitch, and transferring to Mr. Livingston the exclusive privilege of navigating the waters of the state by steam, on condition that he should within a twelvemonth give proof of his having built a boat of 20 tons capable of a mean progress in Hudson river of 4 miles an hour, and at no time omit for one year to have a boat of this construction plying between Albany and New York. This act was from time to time continued, and Fulton was