6. earl. The word here conveys the general idea of nobility rather than of specific rank.

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7. Found thus forlorn. According to tradition Scyld, the founder of the Scylding dynasty, was washed ashore as a child in a boat, in which he was pillowed upon a sheaf of grain; hence his name son of Scef (Sheaf).' Cf. 1. 45. 18. Beowulf, a Danish king, not the hero of the poem. The name, so confusing here to the beginner, seems to have been inserted at this point by some copyist in place of the word "Beaw," which stood in the original. Beaw was probably a god of the ancient Scandinavians.

19. Scedelands, Denmark.

30. Scyldings, the Danes. See genealogical tables.

35. Giver of rings. Royal favor was shown by gifts of rings used as armlets, necklaces, etc.

35. On the deck. The passage refers to the ancient Teutonic custom of ship-burial. The body of the dead king was placed on shipboard along with armor and treasures, and allowed to drift away to sea. See further ll. 3014 ff.

40. Bills and burnies, swords and coats of mail.

43. Not at all with less gifts. A fine example of litotes or understatement, a favorite figure in Anglo-Saxon poetry. (Cf. 1. 1304.) The poet here means that the treasure far exceeded what had come in the boat that brought the king, when a helpless child, to shore.

50. Men, etc. Compare this passage with the close of Tennyson's The Passing of Arthur (p. 908).

63. Scylfing's. The Scylfings were perhaps a Swedish people.

78. Heort. The name "Heort (Heorot),"

which means "hart," seems to have been given to the hall because, with its decorated gables, it bore a fancied resemblance to a stag's head with antlers. The building was probably rectangular, with opposite doors and a hearth in the middle of the large hall.

83. hateful fire. Presumably a reference to the fact that Heorot, like other mediæval houses of wood, was destined ultimately to be destroyed by fire. The burning is not referred to elsewhere.

86. fell spirit, the giant ogre Grendel, not referred to by name until l. 102. 91. creation. The creation of the world was

a favorite theme with Old English poets. Compare Cadmon's "Hymn " (p. 39). Though the Danes are heathens, the minstrel is represented as reciting a story told in the Bible!

103. mark-stepper, one who dwells on the borders.

107. Cain's kin. It was a common tradition

during the Middle Ages that Cain, because of his wickedness and of God's curse (Genesis iv, 8), was the ancestor of many uncanny creatures. Cf. 1. 1261 and note.

112. Eotens, giants.

123. thanes, nobles attending upon the king in his court. After the Norman Conquest the title was replaced by that of baron. 151. Sadly in songs. Poets, who acted as journalists and purveyors of news during the Dark Ages, spread abroad Grendel's fame in sorrowful songs.

156. nor with money compound. Grendel did not even offer monetary compensation for his crimes, as was permitted by Germanic law. Cf. 1. 470.

168. Yet must he, etc. The passage is difficult. It may mean either that (a), as rendered here, Grendel could not approach the throne because of his evil deeds, or that (b) Hrothgar could not approach his throne because of the will of God.

177. destroyer of spirits, a name given by the Christian poet to the god of the heathen Danes.

194. Higelac's thane, Beowulf, the hero of the poem. Higelac (Hygelac) was king of the Geats (Goths), a people settled in southern Sweden or Jutland.

199. war-king, Hrothgar. 200. swan-road, a kenning for the "sea." 202. cunning churls, retainers skilled in arms and council. The word "churl" is used here without any low connotation. 212. stied, mounted. Cf. Modern English "stirrup"; i.e., a "sty-rope," a rope to mount by. 223. nesses, headlands.

225. Weders' people, Geats. 226. battle-sarks, shirts of mail. 236. wood, spear.

259. word-hoard unlocked, spoke. A characteristic epic formula. Cf. 1. 2791 f. 268. Healfdene's son, Hrothgar. See genealogical tables.

270. mickle, great, important. 298. Wedermark, the land of the Geats, Beowulf's home.

303. boar's likeness, the figure of a boar worn as an ornament on top of the helmet. The boar was sacred to Freyr, a favorite god of the ancient Scandinavians.

307. the well-built hall, Heorot. 372. I knew him of old. That Hrothgar knows Beowulf and his lineage is evidence of the latter's noble origin. 374. Hrethel. See genealogical tables. 408. many exploits. The youthful exploits (enfances) of a hero are a favorite theme of epic and romance. Of Beowulf's youthful deeds the poet gives us nothing except the swimming match with Breca, introduced incidentally (1. 506 ff.). See also 1. 2426 ff.

422. nickers, sea-monsters. 445. Hrethmen, Danes. 454. Hrædla's, Hrethel's. See 1. 374. The armor, bequeathed to Beowulf by his grandfather, is here said to have been made by Weland, a famous smith, the Vulcan of Germanic mythology. 455. Weird, Fate. The pagan idea of the unalterable character of Destiny, is frequently mentioned by Anglo-Saxon Christian writers. At times Weird is apparently identified with Divine Providence.

467. Heregar. See genealogical tables. 493. bold-minded, Beowulf and his companions.

499. Hunferth, the official orator or spokesman of Hrothgar's court. Cf. 1. 1165. His discourtesy, Beowulf implies (1. 531), is due to drunkenness. The word-battle between him and Beowulf is called a fliting.

521. Brondings, Breca's people. The episode of Beowulf's swimming-match with

915. him, Heremod. 917. they, those coming to see Grendel's hand. The poet, having completed his account of the singer's lay, returns somewhat abruptly to the main thread of his narrative.

924. mead-path, path from the women's apartment to the great hall, or meadhouse.

928. thanks. Note that Christian sentiments are here put into the mouth of a heathen. Cf. note to 1. 91. See also l. 1397 ff. 977. bale, sorrow.

980. son of Ecglaf, Hunferth, who had made little of Beowulf's exploits. See l. 499 ff. 995. webs, brocaded tapestries. 1008. Shall sleep after feast. Every one must

die. Truisms emphasizing the shortness of life and the certainty of death are common in the literature composed under the influence of early English Christianity. Cf. ll. 1386 f., 2590 f. The AngloSaxons were fond of aphorisms. Cf. L 1059.

1017. Hrothulf, the nephew of Hrothgar. See genealogical tables. He lives at Hrothgar's court. Nephew and uncle are here at peace (1. 1164); it appears that later they fell out. See note to 1. 1181. 1030. 'Round the crown, etc. The passage seems to mean that the crown of the helmet was crossed by a ridge of wires to prevent its being cut by swords hardened with files.

1035. earl's defence, Hrothgar.

1036. to lead, etc. During the Middle Ages halls were frequently of such a construction that horses could be led into the building.

1044. Ingwins, Danes.

1068. Finn's sons. The Lay of Finn, covering lines 1068 to 1159, presents numerous difficulties. It belongs to a larger body of epic material of which part is preserved in a fragment known as the Fight at Finns burgh. It appears that Finn, a Frisian chieftain, abducted Hildeburh, daughter of Hoc, King of Danemark. The father pursued the fugitives, but was slain in

Hrothulf (who is none too trustworthy) as the natural guardian of her two sons, Hrethric and Hrothmund (1. 1189). 1190. The youth. On formal occasions a special place in the hall was assigned to the youth" or younger members of the band, who were called geogoth, as opposed to the duguth, or seasoned warriors of the chieftain's retinue (comitatus). 1199. Brosings' collar. According to Scandinavian mythology, the Brosings' (really Brisings') necklace belonged originally to the goddess Freyja and was stolen from her by the god Loki. It was later carried off by Hama (Heime) when he fled from Earmenric (the Hermanric of history), king of the Ostrogoths (1. 1201). Another echo of an ancient epic. 1202. Higelac. The poet tells us that the col

lar given to Beowulf passed into the hands of Beowulf's lord Hygelac, who lost it during the encounter which cost him his life. Hygelac is a historical personage who was slain about A.D. 512 while on a raid into Frisian territory (cf. 11. 1207, 2914 ff.). Beowulf, who is said to have escaped by swimming (1. 2360), may also be historical.

1214. The hall resounded. That is, resounded with applause when the gifts were given to Beowulf. Having completed the history of the necklace, the poet returns to the scene in Heorot. 1239. Emptied, etc. They set aside the movable benches and covered the floor with beds and bolsters for sleeping. 1240. A certain beer-servant. Eschere, one

of Hrothgar's retinue. He is referred to in 1. 1294, but his name is not given till 1. 1323.

1243. boards. The shields were made of boards. 1248. in each one. That is, both at home and on military expeditions.

1261. Cain. Cf. 1. 107 ff. A modern narrator would hardly indulge in this repetition.

1270. he, Beowulf.

1306. old king, Hrothgar.

1312. one of earls, Beowulf.

1345. I, etc. "I have heard my people say

that," etc.

1357. Note the passage describing nature

(II. 1357-1375). Such extensive descriptions of nature are rare in Anglo-Saxon poetry. For the underground water, cf. "the sacred river" in Coleridge's Kubla Khan (p. 714).

1392. he. The reference is of course to Gren

del's mother, though Beowulf uses the masculine pronoun.

1412. He, probably Hrothgar. 1435. holm, sea.

1438. hooked swords. The reference is to the boar spears, which were hooked and barbed.

1456. Hrothgar's orator, Hunferth. See 1. 499 and note.

1457. Hrunting, the "Thruster." Ancient Germanic swords frequently had names. This weapon, because of a spell, failed Beowulf at need (l. 1522). Later he returns it to Hunferth (1. 1807). 1485. Hrethel's son, Hygelac. See genealogical tables.

1489. The wonderful sword, Beowulf's own sword or the one given him by Hrothgar. 1502. Not sooner, etc. That is, she did not injure.

1513. sea-hall. Beowulf is overcome by Grendel's mother and dragged to her lair, a great hall situated under but free from the water.

1537. Seized, etc. Beowulf seized Grendel's mother and threw her on the floor.

1546. brown-edged, burnished, bright. 1581. Slew, etc. Grendel had seized and eaten fifteen of Hrothgar's men while they slept.

1584. he, Beowulf.

1600. The ninth hour. Probably the close of the day.

1601. he, Hrothgar.

1602. the strangers, Beowulf's companions. 1605. The sword. The story returns abruptly to Beowulf in the hall under water. Because of the heat of the monster's blood the sword melted in bloodstained drops. Cf. 1. 1667.

1686. Sceden-ig, the Danish kingdom. 1700. that he may say, etc. "Whoever remembers as far back as I do may well say, as I say, that," etc.

1734. For his lack of wisdom. So great is his empire that he, because of his folly, expects his kingdom to last forever.

1747. that cursed spirit, the devil. 1749. for boasting, because of pride. 1801. joy of heaven, a kenning for the sun. 1804. æthelings, men of noble birth. 1873. hope of both. The translation is doubtful. The passage seems to mean that the old king had in mind two alternatives he might not or he might live to see Beowulf again; he hoped for the latter.

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1926. Hygd, Hygelac's queen. 1931. Modthrytho, etc. Probably a better rendering of this and the following line would be: Not Thryth's pride showed she (Hygd), folk-queen famed, or that fell deceit.' In any case, Thryth, the proud and cruel wife of the Anglian king Offa and the mother of Eomer, is here introduced in striking contrast to the gentle Hygd.

1942. peace-weaver, a kenning for a wife. 1945. kinsman of Heming, her husband, whom she slew.

1946. less did inflict. She inflicted none at all. See note to l. 43.

1948. given to the young warrior. Perhaps

Thryth belonged to that class of heroines who, like Katherina in Shakespeare's Taming of the Shrew, lose their ill nature after they are tamed by the right man.

1963. the brave, Beowulf. 1968. Ongentheow, king of the Swedes, slain by Hygelac. See genealogical tables. For the strife between the Swedes and the Geats, see 11. 2472 ff., 2922 ff. 1978. Kinsman. Hygelac is Beowulf's uncle. 2025. Froda's . . . son, Ingeld, son of Froda and king of the Heathobards (1. 1032). The Heathobards are perhaps the Langobards (Lombards), near neighbors of the Angles and Saxons on the Continent. 2036. bequest of the aged. Froda, it appears,

was slain by a Danish warrior, who leaves the weapon to his son. This son accompanies the young princess Freawaru to Ingeld's court. When the sword is recognized and the circumstances recalled by an old warrior, the feud is reopened. The Dane is killed, but the murderer ("the other," 1. 2061) escapes.

2085. glove. Or rather a sort of bag into which he intended to stuff his prey. 2158. Hiorogar, Heregar. See genealogical

tables.

2187. slothful. The story of the sluggish, stu

pid boy who later becomes a hero of renown is a favorite in epic and romance, especially in the literature of Scandina

via.

2190. earl's defence, Hygelac. 2199. better. The passage seems to mean not that Hygelac was morally "better" than Beowulf but that, being king, he occupied a higher position.

2201. Hygelac died. See note to 1. 1202. 2202. Heardred. See genealogical tables. Heardred was slain by Onela. See also 1. 2385 ff.

2205. Battle-Scylfings. See note to 1. 63. 2206. nephew of Hereric, Heardred. 2207. After Beowulf, etc. After the death of

Hygelac, Beowulf acted as guardian of Heardred. (See 1. 2370 ff. and notes.) After Heardred was slain, Beowulf succeeded to the throne and ruled long and well.

2212. a treasure protected. The story of a treasure protected by a dragon is a common theme both in Classical and in mediæval tradition. Compare Jason's winning of the Golden Fleece and the story of the Nibelungs referred to above (note to 1. 875).

2213. steep stony mountain. Great stone mounds, or barrows, are prominent land

marks in certain parts of England. See, for example, Mr. Thomas Hardy's Egdon Heath. Some barrows have been found with a secret entrance somewhat like that described in this passage. 2215. Some one of men. The same person as "the innocent warrior (man) " referred to below (11. 2221 and 2227). The finder of the treasure was banished, though innocent. The stolen vessel he carried as a "peace offering" to his lord (1. 2283). 2233. Some one of men. Not the finder of the treasure but some ancient warrior, the last of a noble race, who had concealed the treasure in the barrow and then "banning words spoke." (1.2246); i.e., laid a curse upon it that it might never be touched. There is a mass of folk-lore about the dangers of meddling with buried treasure. As to the curse, see further 1. 3052.

2239. that, death.

2275. He . . . earth. The translation is a guess. Perhaps better: " He shall seek treasure in the earth."

2300. That, the fact that the treasure had been robbed.

2307. At the will of, as wished. 2333. fire-drake, dragon.

2358. died. See note to l. 1202. 2363. Hetwaras, one of the tribes against whom Hygelac was fighting when he was slain. 2370. The child, Heardred. 2373. Not sooner.

Beowulf refused the crown but consented to act as guardian of the young king.

2380. Ohthere's sons. See genealogical tables. 2384. A mighty prince, Onela, who pursued his nephew to the Geats' court and slew Heardred.

2439. Missed he the mark. Hatheyn killed his brother Herebeald by accident.

2441. fee-less fight. Under the circumstances the father could claim no wergild or monetary recompense from one brother for killing the other.

2445. his son hang. The poet does not mean that Hrethel actually hanged Hætheyn; he is merely supposing.

2460. he, the father.

2487. the aged Scylfing, Ongentheow, slain by Eofor.

2488. sword-pale, pale in death. 2494. Gifths, a name for the Gepida, a tribe living near the Baltic Sea.

2502. Hugs'. The Hugs were perhaps the Franks, among whom Hygelac met his death. See note to 1. 1202.

2546. burn's, stream's. 2577. relic, sword. 2602. Weohstan's. Weohstan, Wiglaf's father, was a kinsman of Hygelac and Beowulf (see above, 1. 2151). While in the service of the Swedish king Onela (1. 2616). he had killed Eanmund (1. 2611) and won his arms.