getfulness of real learning, and the "Kulturkampf" has produced a number of books which are not strong in historical criticism. Herr Dammann* has turned to English history for lessons against papal aggression, and has revived a narrow and unhistorical view of English history. He has raked up the ancient British Church, which was founded by St. Paul, and was earlier than the Roman Church, which was certainly not founded by St. Peter. All papal dealings with England were aggressions on the freedom of this ancient British Church, and the English Reformation was merely an assertion of its long dormant rights. This is a comforting view of the facts to many minds, but it is not of much historical value. We wonder to find it set forward by a foreign writer; we wonder still more to find in his pages a reference to such an authority as Pinnock's "Analysis of the New Testament." After that we are not surprised to find that Herr Dammann's zeal to cut off from the Papacy every good thing leads him to attribute the foundation of the University of Oxford to "Arviragus, an ancient British king, about the year 70, and therefore very soon after the introduction of Christianity into Britain." In contrast with this airy treatment of English history stands another foreign book, M. Bémont's "Simon de Montfort,"† a work of scholarly thoroughness. Simon de Montfort has long been a puzzling character. His importance as regards the growth of the English Constitution was clearly traced by Bishop Stubbs in his "Constitutional History," and was fully shown in Mr. Prothero's able biography. But the real objects of the man were still difficult to understand. It was hard to see how a foreigner and an adventurer became an English patriot. M. Bémont produces much new material which enables. us to form a truer opinion of Earl Simon's character. From 1248 to 1254 Simon de Montfort was governor of Gascony, and the archives of Paris furnish much information of the nature of his government. They show us a stern and vigorous ruler, who paid little respect to men's rights or to the rules of justice. Simon de Montfort went to do a hard work in Gascony, and he did it with a high hand. Henry III. was alarmed by the complaints against him, and Simon, increasingly irritated against the King on personal grounds, gradually joined the aristocratic party in England. He carried with him into English affairs the same resolute spirit that he had shown in Gascony. He was harsh, stubborn, and intractable. He was a leader of the barons, who knew the need of the help of the people. But he was an aristocrat, and nothing more. His policy was personal, but as a party leader he used all the means he could to secure it. His death raised him to the position of a popular hero; and he merited it by setting a precedent which Edward I. followed. Such are M. Bémont's conclusions, supported by a mass of evidence which gives them great weight. We cannot refuse to read the character of Simon by the light thrown on it by his policy in Gascony, concerning which we have a detailed account. Another puzzling character in English history, King Henry VIII., is presented in a new aspect by Mr. Friedmann in his biography of Anne * "Kulturkämpfe in Alt England." Von A. Dammann. II. Theil. Leipzig: Baensch. 1883. + Simon de Montfort, Comte de Leicester." Par Charles Bémont. Paris: Picard. 1884. Boleyn.* Many views have been held about Henry VIII., but Mr. Friedmann differs from them all. In his eyes Henry VIII. was a vain, foolish, irresolute, but obstinate man, who meddled in foreign politics without understanding them. He was always under the influence of some one superior to himself, and he exercised his own power only by occasionally overthrowing his governor. First Queen Catharine, next Wolsey, and then Anne Boleyn guided the King. Mr. Friedmann accordingly looks on Anne Boleyn as the central figure of English history from 1527 to 1536, and traces the results of her activity. He has done his work with praiseworthy thoroughness, and has especially made use of the letters of Chappuis, the Imperial envoy in London. He has brought forward a great deal of new matter of the highest importance. But two considerations strike us after reading Mr. Friedmann's clear and dignified narrative. First of all, though he knows a great deal about the Court and the ambassadors, he knows nothing about England. It is true that he begins by dismissing England in the beginning of the fifteenth century as a third-rate Power, with a scanty population, a small revenue, and no army. As regards its internal politics, Parliament was so absolutely under the power of the King that it need not be considered as having any influence, and popular opinion scarcely existed. Consequently, Mr. Friedmann has no scruple in treating English history under Henry VIII. as the French delight to treat the age of Louis XIV. It was a series of backstairs intrigues, and mainly depended on the King's mistresses. This is a new point of view, interesting as far as it goes, but not very fruitful of results. To an Englishman it reads like a chapter of English history with England left out. Mr. Friedmann no doubt would say that he has simply followed Chappuis; but Chappuis was scarcely an impartial observer. He told his master such things only as concerned personal or political relations between the two kings. He was by his position the centre of all the opponents of Henry VIII., and no doubt every one told him all stories, true or otherwise, which tended to the King's disadvantage. His evidence is useful on many points of detail; but Mr. Friedmann has absolutely accepted his way of looking at things. Would he be prepared to write a Life of Lord Palmerston, following as his chief guide the despatches of the French ambassador to Napoleon I.? They would be very interesting, no doubt; but we would be sorry to accept them as unerring guides to the meaning of the history of England during the period which they covered. A book which, for its learning, deserves equal respect with those already mentioned is Mr. Wylie's "History of England under Henry IV." Mr. Wylie is right in thinking that the reign of Henry IV. has not been sufficiently investigated, and he has worked diligently to fill a gap. He seems to have neglected no available source of information, and has composed a chronicle which is the result of much detailed labour. The defect of his book is a want of historical insight. He does not seem to know clearly what are the questions which it is worth while to answer. His narrative flows on pleasantly enough: but we continue to wonder why things happen as they do, and what comes of "Anne Boleyn: a Chapter of English History, 1527-1536." By Paul Friedmann. Two vols. London: Macmillan. 1884. + Vol. I. 1399-1404. London: Longmans. 1884. them all. Many little mistakes show that Mr. Wylie is not sufficiently equipped with general historical knowledge, and that he looks at things from too modern a point of view. He is strongest in social history; in constitutional history he is decidedly weak. Few books which have recently appeared show more careful and conscientious work than Mr. Mullinger's "History of the University of Cambridge." It does not deal merely with the details of its immediate subject, but is almost a history of European learning. We feel as we read that there is a large store of knowledge in reserve, and that Mr. Mullinger has chosen deliberately what he should say and what he should leave unsaid. He writes with quiet dignity befitting his subject, and shows both a keen perception of the historical aspect of the time and a genuine sympathy with scholarship of every kind. The period with which this volume deals was one of momentous importance for the university. Its very existence was at stake; for the courtiers of Henry VIII. were desirous of adding the spoils of the university to the spoils of the monasteries. It needed all the patriotic persistency of Sir John Cheke and Sir Thomas Smith to avert the doom which seemed impending. The universities were saved, and Cambridge entered upon the most glorious period of her history, when she was the bulwark of the Reformation theology, and sent forth Parker and Whitgift to rule the Church in times that needed a clear head and strong intelligence. The period which Mr. Mullinger treats saw the foundation of Magdalen, Trinity, Caius, Emmanuel, and Sidney Colleges, and the circumstances of these new foundations illustrate different forms of endeavour to meet the needs of the time. Mr. Mullinger's narrative omits nothing which is required by the fullest interpretation of his subject. He shows us the statutes of the colleges, the internal organization of the university, its connection with national problems, its studies, its social life, and the activity of its leading members. All this Mr. Mullinger manages to combine in a form which is eminently readable. From America we have a book which is a most delightful example of spirited narrative. Mr. Parkman's "Montcalm and Wolfe" † tells the story of the conquest of Canada in a way which makes his work as attractive as a novel. It has certainly much more plot and interest than the American novel of the present day. This does not mean that Mr. Parkman has merely indulged in picturesque writing. His book is the result of laborious research, and its freshness and life come from his own genuine interest in his subject and power of presenting his knowledge in a straightforward and vivid manner. Montcalm is the hero of his book, and he has been at the pains to read Montcalm's letters and to search the French archives for illustrative documents. Our sympathy is enlisted on the side of the quick, restless, impetuous general, who was hampered by the incapable governor in Canada, Vaudreuil, and who was not supported from home in his hour of need. Montcalm disliked his unpleasant work, and shrank from the horrors of a war carried on with savage allies. He pined for his quiet country life at home, and rejoiced more to hear of the success of agricul "The University of Cambridge, from the Royal Injunctions of 1535 to the Accession of Charles I." By J. Bass Mullinger. Cambridge: University Press. 1884. Two vols. London: Macmillan. 1884. tural improvements on his estate than to receive decorations from the French king. Yet he did his duty cheerfully, and died like a hero. We feel in Mr. Parkman's pages that the victory of Wolfe was the result of a remorseless destiny which declared for the side that had the greatest political strength. France lost Canada because she did not appreciate its importance. Her views were confined within the sphere of European politics, and her claims on the New World slipped from her through want of foresight. Mr. Parkman makes us feel at every page the character of the conflict in Canada, the ideas of the two nations, the nature of their rule and their administration. His narrative never flags, and it leaves a clear and definite picture in the mind of the reader. The history of the eighteenth century is a popular subject at present. It affords plenty of material for personal gossip, which to many is the attractive part of history, and it has an apparent connection with present politics, which leads others to regard it as specially fruitful in useful experience. Mr. M'Carthy, in his "History of the Four Georges," seems to appeal to the first of these classes of readers. He has nothing to add to the work already done by Lord Stanhope and Mr. Lecky, but he tries to serve his material in a piquant form. In fact, his object seems to be the expansion of Thackeray's four lectures into four volumes. The first volume reaches from 1714 to 1733. It is pleasantly written by a writer who is well practised in knowing what will interest the languid reader, and who avoids the snares of overmuch learning. Mr. M'Carthy seems well fitted to succeed to the place left vacant by Mr. Hepworth Dixon as purveyor of history suited to circulating libraries. A less pretentious, but more workmanlike, book is a handbook dealing with the same period by Mr. Skottowe. Its author does not claim any originality, and his book is designed for those preparing for examinations. It is clear and sensible, but has many faults of style, and indulges in the use of italics and small capitals in a way which is not easily accounted for, and which is not explained. In foreign history we may notice a little book on the "Struggle between Kingship and Papacy, from Gregory VII. to Calixtus II." ‡ which is one of the numerous publications which the Kulturkampf in Germany has called forth. It is the work of an Ultramontane clergyman formerly a member of the Prussian Landtag. It makes no claim to research or criticism, but tells the story from the side of the Church, whereas it has generally been told from the side of the State. The reader will find many hints which make the question of lay investitures more real, and bring out its far-reaching importance, especially in Germany. But the thoroughness of papal partisanship is remarkable. The great blot upon the character of Gregory VII. is the ruthless destruction which he allowed his Norman allies to work in Rome. The Romans had stood by the Pope in great difficulties; at last they were driven to open their gates to Henry IV. It is hard to palliate the By Justin M'Carthy, M.P. In four vols. Vol. I. Chatto & Windus. 1884. +"Our Hanoverian Kings: a Short History of the Four Georges, 1714-1830." By B. C. Skottowe. London: Sampson Low. 1884. "Der Kampf zwischen Papstthum und Königthum von Gregor VII. bis Calixt II." Von I. Ibach. Frankfurt. 1884. VOL. XLVII. revengeful spirit which forgot their previous services and punished A work which promises to be of great importance for German history is Herr Ulmann's "Kaiser Maximilian I," of which the first volume only has appeared. It is founded on a diligent search into the archives of Germany, and is concerned chiefly with German affairs. The reign of Maximilian I. was a decisive period for the German people. The spread of national feeling throughout Europe made Germany feel the need of a national organization. The reforms projected under Maximilian never grew to any strength, and Maximilian's adventurous policy abroad weakened Germany without securing any advantages. The working of the political life of Germany is traced by Herr Ulmann with care and diligence. The next volume of his work will enable us to understand better the importance of his conclusions. The work of M. Müntz on the "Renaissance in Italy and France "+ is one of those beautiful books which only Paris can produce. It is enriched with illustrations chosen with excellent taste, and executed so as to show the points which they are meant to explain. M. Müntz is already well known for his careful researches on the early stages of the Renaissance in art and architecture. The important work, in which he has now brought together the results of his various studies, is due to the liberality of the Duc de Chaulnes, who was himself a great collector and student. He wished to see some abiding record of his activity, and placed at the disposal of M. Müntz all his own treasures, and furnished the means for the production of this truly magnificent work. M. Müntz's book is divided into three parts. The first part deals generally with the Italian Renaissance; the second part deals with the artistic record of the various Italian cities; the third part shows the influence of the Italian Renaissance on the development of art in France. The great value of M. Müntz's labours is that he treats the Renaissance as a whole, and displays equal knowledge of its productions in every department of art. This is very important for a real understanding of artistic life. For the first time, in his pages we are shown the simultaneous development of painting, sculpture, embroidery, missal painting, intarsia work, architecture, and the art of the medallist. The copious illustrations make the whole process intelligible. Moreover, the study of each Italian capital by itself in reference to its historical conditions gives clearness to the view. The artistic history of Italy is often confused because it is dealt with too generally and on too exclusive lines. In some places artistic work was largely disseminated; "Kaiser Maximilian I, auf urkundlichen Grundlage dargestellt." Von Dr. Heinrich Ulmann. I. Band. Stuttgart. 1884. +"La Renaissance en Italie et en France à l'époque de Charles VIII." Par Eugène Müntz. Paris: Firmin-Didot. 1885. |