Knight, and for Gawain's exploit at the beginning and the return blow at the end of the fourteenth-century English romance of Gawain and the Green Knight. See especially pp. 98 ff. and 117 ff.

The Feast of Bricriu belongs to the Ulster or Red Branch cycle of early Irish literature (which includes also the Ossianic cycle [see note to p. 62b] and the so-called Mythological cycle). The stories of the Ulster cycle centre around the court of King Connor (Conchobar), who, according to tradition, ruled ancient Ulster about the beginning of the Christian era. Many of the Red Branch tales, such as the Feast of Bricriu, recount the exploits of the youthful Cuchulainn (pronounced: Cu-hoolin), beloved hero of early Irish epic and romance. In its present form the Feast of Bricriu consists of a series of loosely connected episodes in which Cuchulainn, Conall, and Leary (Loegaire) the three most renowned champions of Ulster-contend by feats of bravery for the choicest tidbits ("the hero's portion ") of a feast given by Bricriu. The final and deciding contest is described in our selection. "The Champion's Bargain" is based on a widespread folk-tale of a supernatural being whose head comes off and on with ease and who proposes to mortals a game which only the chosen hero can win. Sometimes, as in the story of the Sphynx in Greek mythology, the uncanny creature asks a riddle; in other versions, as in the Irish story, he proposes a beheading game. In certain Slavic countries there is a terrible supernatural woman who asks difficult questions of mortals that happen to come under her influence and slays them if they cannot answer.

The author of the Feast of Bricriu is unknown.

5. Emain, pronounced: Åvin. Emain, or Emain Macha, as it is usually called, was the capital of ancient Ulster. To-day nothing of it remains except an extensive artificial earthwork, the ruins of the mound on which the ancient palace (doubtless thought of as much like Hrothgar's hall in Beowulf, 1. 78 and note) and its outbuildings are said to have stood. As the Ulster sagas go back to a period before the establishment of a centralized government in Ireland, Tara, the capital of Ireland immortalized by Tom Moore in "The Harp that once through Tara's Halls" (p. 805), had not yet become a centre of romantic tradition. Emain, now called "Navan fort," is situated near the little town of Navan in county Louth not far from the hill of Tara.

6. Conchobar, king of Ulster. His character is more typical of the popular epic

than are the characters of Hrothgar and Hygelac in Beowulf. He is not always portrayed in a favorable light; he is often deceitful, and, although elderly, is uxorious. The Irish pagan epics have in general been less christianized than those of the Anglo-Saxons and hence are more valuable as pictures of preChristian culture. Read the introductory note to Beowulf, p. 1.

6. Fergus mac Roig. Fergus mac Roig (pronounced: Ró-igh) is the chief noble of Connor's court.

10. Cuchulainn, the chief hero of the Ulster cycle. According to tradition, his name, originally Setanta, was changed to CuChulainn (Hound of Culann) because, when a little boy, he slew a terrible watchdog belonging to the Ulster smith Culann, and, to make amends, took the animal's place. Irish saga writers never tired of recounting his exploits. He has been called the Achilles of ancient Irish epic literature. He is the son of King Connor's sister (or daughter) by a supernatural father. Like other popular heroes, he is precocious. He begins his heroic deeds at the age of seven. One of the finest epic passages preserved from the literature of the Middle Ages describes his death, which took place when he was twenty-seven years old. His stronghold is placed by tradition at Dun Delgan (modern Dundalk). Though boastful, vindictive, and cruel, he is not without feelings of modesty, friendship, and honor, and is doubtless intended to exemplify the ideals of pagan Celtic chivalry. Contrast the character of Beowulf. 10. f. Conall . . . Laegaire. See introductory note to the Feast of Bricriu.

38. Duach of the Chafer Tongue, so called because of his rough, biting, satirical speech. Duach (pronounced: Doo-ach) is the doublet of Bricriu, called "PoisonTongue" because of the bitterness of his language. Both are usually represented as fomenting strife and discord. They are stock epic figures corresponding to Thersites in the Homeric epic, and to Sir Kay in Arthurian romance. 59b 1. Erin, Ireland.

2. Alba, Britain.

3. Scythia, an ancient name for the remoter northern regions of Europe and Asia.

4. Pillars of Hercules, the two great promontories that guard the straits of Gibraltar.

5. Brigantium, in Spain.

5. Gades, Cadiz. This and the other names of places are doubtless introduced merely to indicate vaguely a vast extent of territory.

22. Sencha mac Ailill, pronounced: Shencha mac Al-ill. Sencha is the type of the old, wise counselor - a stock epic figure.

31. I may cut off his head. The giant, with grim humor, at first proposes the beheading game in reverse order. The real bargain, which seems so strange" to the mortals, is that the first blow shall be given by the Ulsterman, the return blow on the next night by the giant. 35. Munremar, son of Gercenn, literally, "Fat-Neck son of Short-Head," next to Cuchulainn one of the most redoubtable heroes of Ulster. His nickname is said to have been derived from the fact that a Connaught warrior cast a spear at him and struck him in the neck, which swelled and became thick in consequence. 40. centaurs, mythical creatures, half men and half horses, who figure in Greek

mythology as especially savage and strong. They fought against Hercules. 47. f. By my people's god. Just what gods the pagan Irish worshipped is doubtful. They probably adored the sun and other natural objects such as fountains and

trees.

60a 36. ff. Loegaire . . . . . Conall. Clearly Loegaire and Conall agreed to the bargain and beheaded the giant, but failed to keep the promise to abide the return blow.

38. Champion's Portion, the choicest part of the feast prepared by Bricriu and de

scribed at the beginning of the saga. It consisted of a hogshead of wine, a whole boar, a bull, and a hundred gigantic cakes cooked in honey. The strain of burlesque which runs through the Feast of Bricriu and other Irish sagas has been compared with the work of the great French humorist Rabelais.

60b 25. f. I would rather have death with

honor. This is a fine epic sentiment. Cuchulainn's delicate sense of personal honor is emphasized elsewhere in Irish literature.

34. stretched out his neck, etc. Cuchulainn is noted for his contortions, some even more fantastic than this.

61a CONNLA OF THE GOLDEN HAIR, AND THE FAIRY MAIDEN The story of Connla is an admirable example of the type of ancient Celtic tale that stimulated the imagination of continental and English poets during the Middle Ages and produced an abundant crop of romances and lays telling of love affairs between seductive fairy women and their mortal lovers. Such stories have furnished a storehouse for English poets from Chaucer till the nineteenth century. Read the introductory note to Guingamor (p. 70). Connla's departure to fairy land should be compared with the Passing of Arthur as described by Layamon (p. 97), Malory (p. 134b,

14 ff.), and Tennyson (p. 913, 1. 361 ff.). The author is unknown.

26. Conn the Hundred-fighter, according to tradition, high-king of Ireland from A.D. 123 to 158.

27. Hill of Usna, one of the royal residences, situated in the district now known as Westmeath.

32. Land of the Living, also called "Land of the Young" (Tir na n-Og, pronounced: Teer na noag) and the "Pleasant Plain" (Moy Mell): see 1. 45, below. It is the earthly paradise or Elysium of the pagan Irish. It is localized in various places, frequently, as here, on an island in the Atlantic Ocean. To this land of perpetual pleasure and eternal summer chosen mortals were sometimes transported, there to enjoy youth and love for ever, or to return only to find, like Guingamor (p. 74a), that what had seemed an absence of three days had really been three hundred years.

61b 7. druid. Little is known of the specific functions of the Irish druids. Like the medicine-men of the American Indians, they practiced magic and acted as intermediaries between mortals and the powers of the unseen world. Here the druid by his " medicine counteracts the charm of the fairy woman.

9. fairy woman, a rendering of the Irish bean-sidhe (pronounced: bånshee), literally woman of the shee, or fairy hill." The fairy woman of early Irish literature, like the fée of Arthurian romance, is young, beautiful, dignified, imperious. The modern Irish banshee is generally thought of as a lugubrious old hag whose appearance foretells death or other misfortune. Modern Irish fairies still carry off mortals to the other world. 20. apple. In folk-lore the apple is the symbol of love. Apple-trees figure prominently in the earthly paradise of the Celts. The Avalun to which Arthur departs in Layamon's Brut (p. 97, 1. 325) is popularly supposed to be one of the names for the Celtic other world and to be connected with the Welsh word avall (apple). Tennyson makes his Arthur refer to it as "Avilion. with orchard lawns" (p. 913, l. 427 ff.). 47. A just one. The reference is to St. Patrick, who, according to tradition, overcame the druids.

62a 14. canoe. The Irish writer had in mind a curragh (cf. p. 62b, l. 26), or framework covered with skins - a type of boat used by the ancient Irish.

by James Macpherson (see p. 588 ff.) and by him attributed to a mythical third-century Caledonian bard named Ossian are spurious, but few students are acquainted with the large body of authentic Gaelic poetry composed during the Middle Ages and attributed to the mythical Irish poet Ossian. The poem here translated is printed in order to illustrate the kind of literature that furnished the background for Macpherson's greatly admired imitations. Like Macpherson's work, it is tinged with melancholy, but it is simple and direct, whereas Macpherson's Ossian is grandiose and vague. The Ossian of authentic tradition was an Irishman, the son of the famous Finn mac Cumhail (Coo-ul), who figures in mediæval Irish legend as the leader of the Fiana, a distinguished band of hunters and warriors whose exploits took place, according to the Irish annals, in the third century after Christ. In the earliest Irish Ossianic literature Ossian is not the only poet who sings the exploits of Finn's band; gradually he became the bard par excellence of the Fiana. As seen through the eyes of eighteenth-century sentimentalists, he was a great natural genius - the Homer of the ancient Celts. The earliest Ossianic poetry is not melancholy in tone, but as the centuries progress, the poems attributed to Ossian embody more and more Ireland's longing for her departed glories. The name "Ossian" (spelled in Irish "Osin," "Oisin") is pronounced Ush-een in Munster, Ŏsh-in in Ulster and in Scotland.

WELSH

THE MABINOGION

The literary men of ancient Wales practiced a highly technical art and were required to undergo a very careful training. Speaking strictly, the Mabinogion (pronounced: Måb-i-nogion) includes a group of four mediæval Welsh tales (called the "Four Branches of the Mabinogi") which formed a sort of textbook for the young mabinog, or aspirant to the title of bard. More generally, the term "Mabinogion" is applied to a collection of some dozen stories (including the four just referred to) which illustrate the cultural and literary background of mediæval Wales. Although written in Welsh, they should be known to all students of English literature for more than one reason. First, they are told in delightful style and are packed with motifs drawn from the superstition and fancies of the folk. Even more important is the fact that

they help us to visualize the cultural background against which some of the most fascinating of the legends of the Round Table should be viewed. The Four Branches (from one of which our selection is taken) do not mention Arthur and hence may go back to ancient pagan Welsh mythology before Arthur became a popular hero. Others of the Mabinogion contain Arthurian figures, but represent them as highly grotesque and markedly different from the courtly knights of Anglo-Norman romance. See the note to Geoffrey of Monmouth's History, p. 75a.

PWYLL PRINCE OF DYVED

Pwyll, pronounced: Poo-ill, the ll sounded somewhat like the lli in "million." Pwyll was an ancient, probably mythical, Welsh prince, said to have been a contemporary of King Arthur. Dyved, pronounced: Dův-eth. "Dyved" is an ancient name for the western part of South Wales. The mabinogi of Pwyll combines a number of folk-lore themes often used both in medieval and in modern popular fiction. Especially noteworthy is the story of Rhiannon, who, like Connla's mistress (p. 61) and the fairy heroines of numerous Arthurian romances and Breton lays, visits mortal soil in search of her lover. 16. Gorsedd Arberth, the mound (or seat)

of Arberth (or Narberth, 1. 10 above). Such mounds are often associated in Celtic tradition with supernatural appearances or with buried treasure, and hence are dangerous. See the notes to Beowulf, 11. 2213 and 2223.

64a 52 f. My chief quest... thee. So in Arthurian romance fairy ladies are not slow in betraying the purpose of their visits. 64b 4. Rhiannon (pronounced: Reean-on), one of the most charming and unfortunate of the heroines of medieval romance. She belongs to a long line of ladies in folk-lore and romance who, in the face of the greatest misfortunes, carry to incredible lengths the virtue of patience under adversity. Perhaps the most famous example is Griselda, another heroine of mediæval romance. The mediævals were fond of depicting virtues and vices carried to extremes.

5. Heveydd Hên (pronounced: Hev-a-ith Hane), Heveydd "the Old," another probably mythical Welsh king. 52. Nay. The stranger who arrives just in time for dinner and enforces a request by refusing to accept hospitality till his boon be granted is a common figure in mediæval romance.

65a 3 ff. 'What boon... have.' Custom required that King Arthur and other worthies of medieval romance should

grant whatever boon was asked on a high festival. When once the king's promise was given, it must be kept at any cost (see I. 23 below).

20. Gwawl, pronounced: Goo-owl. 66a 50. sureties. That is, sureties that he will keep his promise.

67b 51. Teirnyon Twryv Vliant, pronounced: Téir-nion Too-riv Vlee-ant.

52. Gwent Is Coed, an ancient name for the eastern division of South Wales. Compare the position of Dyved (note to Pwyll, p. 63a, above).

68a 24. struck off the arm. Compare the scene in Beowulf (p. 11, 1. 815 ff.), where the hero tears off Grendel's arm. Both Beowulf and Pwyll illustrate the ancient and oft-repeated theme of the haunted house a building beset by a demon or other supernatural creature. In a folk-tale from the South the hero cuts off the claw of a demon cat and so rids a dwelling of the monster's visits. 68b 6. Gwri Wallt Euryn, Gwri (pronounced: Goor-ee) "of the golden hair." 69b 9. Pendaran, pronounced: Pen-dåran. According to tradition, Pendaran was a powerful Welsh chieftain and possessed an immense herd of swine.

10. Pryderi, pronounced: Prid-éri.

66

The

name is suggested by the fact that Rhiannon has just used the word pryderi, which means trouble." 70a 7. Cantrevs. The cantrev, literally hundred villages, was a measure of land used anciently both in Britain and in Ireland.

a

11. Ystrad Tywi, part of Carmarthenshire.

ANGLO-NORMAN FRENCH

THE LAY OF GUINGAMOR Guingamor (pronounced: Gwin-gamore) belongs to a group of short narrative poems written mostly in French during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries and known as "Breton " lays because of their supposed origin in the Celtic folk-lore of Brittany or Britain (Bretagne). Some of them were translated into Middle English. Chaucer's Franklin's Tale claims to be a Breton lay. They are generally love stories and include such folk-lore themes as human beings transformed into wolves (were-wolves), self-effacing wives (see note to p. 64b 4), boats that sail by magic, and mortals enamored of fairy women. Guingamor, one of the most fascinating of the Breton lays, is based on a theme that was widely popular both on the continent and in England the story of a mortal beloved by a fairy woman (compare Connla, p. 61 ff. and Pwyll, p. 63 ff.) and by her

lured through the agency of a fairy hunt to her happy other world. In no less than three Breton lays (one in Middle English) the hero is tempted by a queen, refuses her love, wins a fairy mistress, and departs to dwell in her land. In Guingamor, as in numerous Celtic and other folk-tales, the hero returns to mortal soil only to find that he has been absent for three hundred years. Compare the story of Herla, p. 82b.

Of the writers of Breton lays, Marie of France is deservedly the most famous. Little is known of her life. She was certainly well educated and was probably a lady of rank. Though born in France, she lived and wrote in England, perhaps at the court of Henry II (1154-1189), and although she wrote in French, her work deserves to be recognized as part of the literary heritage of the English people. Taking as the subject of her poems stories told in the Norman castles by minstrels who were acquainted with Celtic tradition, she wrote in clear and simple style and with admirable narrative art.

14. Brittany. The translation is uncertain; the rendering should perhaps be Britain. 23 ff. he knew how to promise . . . courtesy. Guingamor, like Chaucer's knight (p. 140b, 1. 45 ff.), was a perfect gentleman according to the standards of Chivalry. Our ideals in this respect have improved little since the Middle Ages.

66

30. bled. Until comparatively recent years bleeding was practiced not only as a remedy but also as a preventive against disease.

35. seneschal, a sort of steward of the royal household, who had charge of feasts and other domestic ceremonies.

70b 24. The queen. The behavior of the queen and of Guingamor on this occasion should be compared with the story of Potiphar's wife and Joseph in the Bible (Genesis xxxix).

72a 31. burghers, citizens. 72b 50 ff. the adventurous land . . . the perilous river . . . the meadow-land. These are all stock features of descriptions of journeys to fairyland. 73b 8. taking her robes. The explanation of this unknightly act, so contrary to Guingamor's general character, is to be found in the nature of the story on which the lay is based. The girl here introduced is a supernatural being somewhat like a swan-maiden - a type of creature who lays aside her swan garment or skin at times and can be captured only by the one who gets possession of her covering. Fairies, swan-maidens, and witches easily become confused in the popular mind. Compare the capture

of the fairy woman in Walter Map's story (p. 83a).

48 ff. He looked upon her gently, etc. Compare the love at first sight in Connla (p. 61a), Pwyll (p. 64a), and Courtiers' Trifles (p. 83b).

74a 14. Each knight

lady. Lovers accompanied by perpetual fairy mistresses are a common feature in the fairy world of Celtic folklore and mediæval courtly romance.

74b 10. neither eat nor drink. Mortals who, like Guingamor, have spent a long period of time in the fairy world are in grave danger if they again eat mortal food or even set foot on mortal soil. See Walter Map's story, p. 82b, ll. 21 ff. In fact, consorting with the fairy folk in any fashion is likely to render mortals abnormal. Compare the behavior of the knight in Keats' La Belle Dame sans Merci, p. 790a.

75a 8. nones, originally about 3 P.M., the ninth hour of the day reckoning from

six in the morning. Later "nones" was shifted so as to mean "midday," our noon.

LATIN

GEOFFREY OF MONMOUTH Geoffrey of Monmouth was a monk and at one time was archdeacon of Monmouth in Wales. He may have been a Welshman. His History of the Kings of Britain, written in Latin, ca. 1136, claims to be a translation of an ancient British book. Since no such book has been discovered, literary historians have been accustomed to speak of Geoffrey as one of the greatest liars in history. However much Geoffrey may have derived from Celtic tradition, to him is due the credit of establishing Arthur as a great emperor, the conqueror of many lands, whose court is a centre of culture to which all resort who wish to learn the proper rules of courtly etiquette and chivalry. To Geoffrey may safely be ascribed the establishment of Arthur's court and his Round Table as chivalric institutions. Whatever be the Celtic background of Arthurian romance, the chief characters are essentially medieval ladies and gentlemen. He also introduced into polite literature the story of King Lear and other stories used later by playwrights and poets. The passages here translated give us an excellent picture of a coronation and other doings of high society during the early twelfth century at an Anglo-Norman court such as that of Henry I (1100-1135). Geoffrey's History was popular throughout the Middle Ages.

JOCELIN OF BRAKELOND

77a CHRONICLE OF ST. EDMUNDSBURY The chronicle from which the selections in the text are taken was written in Latin during the latter part of the twelfth century by one Jocelin, a monk of the monastery of St. Edmundsbury, or Bury St. Edmonds, in Suffolk. Jocelin's work is of especial importance to the student of English literature for two reasons. First, it gives us an ceedingly realistic picture of monasticism, which played so important a part in the life of the Middle Ages. Second, it inspired a large portion of Thomas Carlyle's Past and Present (1843).

ex

A monastery was an abode of men or women who, in order to escape from temptation and save their own souls, lived together in common, ate at the same table, slept in the same dormitory, worshipped in the same church, and were buried in the same graveyard. The numbers of inmates sometimes ran into hundreds, the activities were numerous and far-reaching, and the influence upon life both secular and religious enormous. The essential buildings of a monastery were the church, the cloister, the dormitory, the refectory, and the chapterhouse. An abbey was a monastery that owed no allegiance to some larger establishment.

The Abbot Samson, referred to in the first line, became abbot in 1182 and ruled over the monastery for thirty years. His abbacy covers wholly or in part the reigns of three English Kings: Henry II, Richard I, and John. He was a man of marked personality with a keen sense of duty, strong common sense, and great self-reliance. He is the hero of Jocelin's