OLD ENGLISH PERIOD EPIC AND CHRONICLE About the end of the first quarter of the fifth century after Christ (ca. 428) there arrived in Britain a group of pagan Germanic tribes known as Anglo-Saxons. These invaders brought with them numerous literary and historical traditions preserved by their poets-scops or gleemen. In 597 Augustine introduced into the south of England the Roman form of Christianity; a few years earlier (563) the great Irish missionary, Columba (Columcille), had brought the doctrines of Celtic Christianity into Scotland, whence they spread southward as far as Yarrow and Whitby (the monasteries of Bede and of Cædmon) before they were met and displaced (in 664) by the doctrines of Rome. It is to the Christian scholars and poets of England that we owe the preservation of the small body of native Anglo-Saxon literature which has come down to us. To them also are due several Old-English versions of Biblical stories, numerous homilies and saints' lives in the language of the people, and certain Latin works on themes introduced in part from the Continent. Several translations from Latin into Anglo-Saxon are attributed to Alfred the Great (849-901). The monks who composed or recorded Anglo-Saxon poetry on secular subjects were influenced by conflicting motives. Though they were Christians, they were close kin to warlike men whose ideals were far from those of the meek and lowly Jesus, and they retell the old tales with a scarcely suppressed gusto. Yet being Christians, they naturally purify and ennoble their themes and idealize their characters by the omission of much that is barbaric and by the infusion of a spirit which is in part chivalric and is altogether Christian. Their attitude toward their material may be compared with that of Tennyson, who long afterward attempted to reconcile the dubious moral standards of medieval Arthurian story with the ideals of Victorian society to explain the unfaithfulness of Guinevere on the basis of nineteenth-century ethics. Even when retelling Biblical stories, the Anglo-Saxon poets interpret their stories in terms of pagan society. Their lack of historical sense, which seems to us childish, is thus responsible for what most clearly reflects contemporary life in the Old English Christian epic (e.g., Judith). Hence we cannot regard Anglo-Saxon epic literature as reflecting perfectly the life of our barbaric ancestors. Even Beowulf is not properly Anglo-Saxon either in subject or in treatment. In subject it is continental - probably Scandinavian -; in form and treatment it is sophisticated and Christian. AngloSaxon prose reveals a love of learning and an acquaintance with Greek and Roman literary culture and philosophy which proves that England during the Dark Ages was by no means isolated from what was best in the great stream of Classical and Early Christian culture which survived the barbarian invasions of southern Europe. Both in religious prose and in poetry, whether written in Latin or in the vernacular, the literature of early England reveals a mysticism, an exalted faith, and a divine enthusiasm hardly to be found elsewhere except in the early Christian literature of Ireland. But the Old English writings discussed above by no means constitute the whole 'foundation of the literary culture which has since flourished so abundantly in Britain. In this connection, several significant facts, seldom brought out in histories of literature, should be constantly borne in mind if we are to read intelligently the later pages of this volume. Before the Germanic invaders ever set foot on British soil, the land was inhabited by a group of tribes known as Celts, who had a literature of their own, which, though not written down till late in the Christian era, is known to have been varied in content and rich in imaginative power. Here for example are to be sought the beginnings of the legends about King Arthur. Moreover, by 428 these same Celts had for several centuries been under the rulership of Rome, from whom they had received Christianity as well as much pagan culture. From the fifth century till the Norman conquest (1066) frequent contact between British and Irish monasteries was the means of introducing the literary culture which the Irish people, Christian since the early fifth century, had imported from the Continent or had developed independently. Finally, it was during the Anglo-Saxon period that England was invaded by the Scandinavians, who in their turn made contributions to the literature and culture of the island. In short, we should never forget that although the foundation of our language is Anglo-Saxon, the background of our literature extends far beyond the limits of strictly Anglo-Saxon writings. BEOWULF 1 BEOWULF AND GRENDEL I POETRY Scyld and his descendants. Hrothgar and the building of Heorot. The coming of Grendel, and his evil deeds. Hrothgar's great sorrow. Lo! we of the Spear-Danes', in days of yore, 10 Grew under the clouds, in honors throve, That they ere suffered life-eating care 15 So shall a young man with presents cause, 20 With rich money-gifts in his father's house, That him in old age may after attend Willing comrades; when war shall come, May stand by their chief; by deeds of praise shall In every tribe a hero thrive! 25 Then Scyld departed at the hour of fate, 30 Beloved land-prince; long wielded he power. There stood at haven with curvèd prow, Shining and ready, the prince's ship: The people laid their dear war-lord, With bills and burnies! On his bosom lay 40 With princely treasures, than those had done, 50 Say now in sooth, hall-possessors, Beloved folk-king, for a long time Renowned 'mid the nation (elsewhere went his father 55 The prince from his home), till from him after sprang The great Healfdene: he ruled while he lived, 60 Agèd and warlike, kindly the Scyldings. A great band of men. It came into his mind To many a tribe throughout this midearth 75 The folk-hall to deck. Him in time it befell Quickly with men, that it was all ready, The greatest of halls: Heorot as name gave he it, He who with his word power far and wide had. He belied not his promise, bracelets he dealt, 80 Treasure at banquet. The hall arose By permission of Ginn & Co., Publishers. Went then o'er the waves, by the wind hastened, The foamy-necked float to a fowl most like, 225 230 He who the sea-cliffs was set to hold, him In his mind's thoughts as to what these men were. Went he then to the sea on his steed riding, The thane of Hrothgar; with might he shook 235 The strong wood in his hands, with formal words spoke: 'What now are ye of arms-bearing men 245 A hero in armor: that is no home-stayer With weapons adorned, unless looks belie him, 250 With kindly mind counsel may give, How he, old and good, shall the foe overcome, If yet for him ever should cease 280 The misery of woes, release again come, Your weapons and war-weeds; I shall direct Inquired of the heroes concerning their kinship: 'Whence do ye bear your gilded shields, Gray-colored sarks and grim-looking helmets, Heap of war-shafts? I am of Hrothgar 335 Attendant and servant. Ne'er saw I strangers, So many men, with prouder looks. I think ye for valor, and not in exile, But for high-mindedness Hrothgar have sought.' Him then the hero famed-for-strength answered, 340 The brave Weders' prince, his word then spoke, Bold under his helmet: 'We are of Hygelac I wish to tell to the son of Healfdene, His prowess and wisdom): 'I the Danes' friend, 350 The lord of the Scyldings, therefore will ask, The giver of rings, as thou art a suppliant, The illustrious prince, concerning thy errand, And to thee the answer at once will announce, |