of the Nibelungen passed from its Mythological cal events and persons which our primeval into its Historical shape; and the obscure Mythuses have here united with, and so spiritual elements of it wedded themselves strangely metamorphosed? the answer is unto the obscure remembrances of the Northern satisfactory enough. The great Northern ImImmigrations; and the Twelve Signs of the migrations, unspeakably momentous and glori Zodiac became Twelve Champions of Attila's ous as they were for the Germans, have well Wife, there is no fixing with the smallest nigh faded away utterly from all vernacular certainty. It is known from history that Egin- records. Some traces, nevertheless, some hart, the secretary of Charlemagne, compiled, names, and dim shadows of occurrences in by order of that monarch, a collection of the that grand movement, still linger here: which, ancient German Songs; among which, it is in such circumstances, we gather with avidity. fondly believed by antiquaries, this Nibelungen, There can be no doubt, for example, but this (not indeed our actual Nibelungen Lied, yet an" Etzel, king of Hunland," is the Attila of o.der one of similar purport,) and the main history; several of whose real achievements traditions of the Heldenbuch connected there- and relations are faintly, yet still recognisably with, may have had honourable place. Un- pictured forth in these Poems. Thus his first luckily Eginhart's Collection has quite per- queen is named Halke, and in the Scandinavian ished; and only his Life of the Great Charles, versions, Herka; which last (Erca) is also the in which this circumstance stands noted, sur- name that Priscus gives her, in the well-known vives to provoke curiosity. One thing is cer- Account of his embassy to Attila. Moreover, tain, Fulco, Archbishop of Rheims, in the it is on his second marriage, which had in fact year 885, is introduced as " citing certain so mysterious and tragical a character, that the German books," to enforce some argument of whole catastrophe of the Nibelungen turns. It his by instance of "King Ermerich's crime is true, the "Scourge of God" plays but a tame towards his relations;" which King Ermerich part here; however, his great acts, though all and his crime are at this day part and parcel past, are still visible in their fruits: besides, it of the "Cycle of German Fiction," and pre- is on the Northern or German personages that supposed in the Nibelungen.* Later notices, the tradition chiefly dwells. of a more decisive sort, occur in abundance. Saxo Grammaticus, who flourished in the twelfth century, relates that about the year 1130, a Saxon minstrel being sent to Seeland, with a treacherous invitation from one royal Dane to another; and not daring to violate his oath, yet compassionating the victim, sang to him by way of indirect warning "the Song of Chriemhild's Treachery to her Brothers;" that is to say, the latter portion of the Story which we still read at greater length in the existing Nibelungen Lied. To which direct evidence, that these traditions were universally known in the twelfth century, nay, had been in some shape committed to writing, as "German Books," in the ninth or rather in the eighth, we have still to add the probability of their being "ancient songs," even at that earliest date; all which may perhaps carry us back into the seventh or even sixth century; yet not farther, inasmuch as certain of the poetic personages that figure in them belong historically

to the fifth.

Other and more open proof of antiquity lies in the fact, that these Traditions are so universally diffused. There are Danish and Icelandic versions of them, externally more or less altered and distorted, yet substantially real copies, professing indeed to be borrowed from the German; in particular we have the Nifinga and the Wilkini Saga, composed in the thirteenth century, which still in many ways illustrate the German original. Innumerable other songs and sagas point more remotely in the same direction. Nay, as Von der Hagen informs us, certain rhymed tales, founded on these old adventures, have been recovered from popular recitation, in the Faroe Islands, within these few years.

If we ask now, what lineaments of Fact still exist in these Traditions; what are the Histori

• Von der lingen's Nibelungen, Einleitung, ◊ vii.

Taking farther into account the general "Cycle" or System of Northern Tradition, whereof this Nibelungen is the centre and keystone, there is, as indeed we saw in the Heldenbuch, a certain Kaiser Ottnit and a Dietrich of Bern; to whom also it seems unreasonable to deny historical existence. This Bern, (Verona,) as well as the Rabenschlacht, (Battle of Ravenna,) is continually figuring in these Fictions; though whether under Ottnit we are to understand Odo acer the vanquished, and under Dietrich of Bern, Theodoricus Veronensis, the victor both at Verona and Ravenna, is by no means so indubitable. Chronological difficulties stand much in the way. For our Dietrich of Bern, as we saw in the Nibelungen, is represented as one of Etzel's Champions: now Attila died about the year 450; and this Ostrogoth Theodoric did not fight his great Battle at Verona till 489; that of Ravenna, which was followed by a three years' siege, beginning next year. So that before Dietrich could become Dietrich of Bow, Etzel had been gone almost half a century from the scene. Startled by this anachronism, some commentators have fished out another Theodoric, eighty years prior to him of Verona, and who actually served in Attila's hosts, with a retinue of Goths and Germans; with which New Theodoric, however, the old Ottnit, or Odoacer, of the Helderbuch, must, in his turn, part company; whereby the case is in no whit mended. Certain it seems, in the mean ume, that Dietrich, which signifies Rich in People, 19 the same name which in Greek becomes Theo doricus; for, at first, (as in Procopius,) this very Theodoricus is always written edg which almost exactly corresponds with the German sound. But such are the inconsis tencies involved in both hypotheses, that we are forced to conclude one of two things either that the singers of those old lays were little versed in the niceties of History, and un ambitious of passing for authorities therem

which seems a remarkably easy conclusion; ballad-mongers of that Swabian Era have or else, with Lessing, that they meant some transmitted us their names, so total an oblivion, quite other series of persons and transactions, in this infinitely more important case, may Some Kaiser Otto, and his two Anti-Kaisers, seem surprising. But those Minnelieder (Love(in the twelfth century:) which, from what has come to light since Lessing's day, seems now an untenable position.

songs) and Provençal Madrigals were the Court Poetry of that time, and gained honour in high places; while the old National Traditions were common property and plebeian, and to sing them an unrewarded labour.

However, as concerns the Nibelungen, the most remarkable coincidence, if genuine, remains yet to be mentioned. "Thwortz," a Whoever he may be, let him have our gratiHungarian Chronicler, (or perhaps chronicle,) tude, our love. Looking back with a farewell of we know not what authority, relates, " that glance, over that wondrous old Tale, with its Attila left his kingdom to his two sons Chaba many-coloured texture" of joyances and highand Aladar, the former by a Grecian mother, tides, of weeping and of wo," so skilfully the latter by Kremheilch, (Chriemhild,) a yet artlessly knit up into a whole, we cannot German; that Theodoric, one of his followers, but repeat that a true epic spirit lives in it; sowed dissension between them; and along that in many ways, it has meaning and charms with the Teutonic hosts took part with his for us. Not only as the oldest Tradition of half-countryman, the younger son; whereupon Modern Europe, does it possess a high antiTose a great slaughter, which lasted for fifteen quarian interest; but farther, and even in the days, and terminated in the defeat of Chaba, shape we now see it under, unless the "Epics (the Greek,) and his flight into Asia."* Could of the Son of Fingal" had some sort of auwe but put faith in this Thwortz, we might thenticity, it is our oldest Poem also; the earfancy that some vague rumour of that Krem-liest product of these New Ages, which on its bench tragedy, swoln by the way, had reached the German ear and imagination; where, gathering round older Ideas and Mythuses, as Matter round its, Spirit, the first rude form of Chricmhilde's Revenge and the Wreck of the NibeJunge bodied itself forth in Song.

Thus any historical light, emitted by these old Fictions, is little better than darkness visiEe; sufficient at most to indicate that great Northern Immigrations, and wars and rumours of wars, have been; but nowise how and what they have been. Scarcely clearer is the special history of the Fictions themselves: where they were first put together, who have been their *Gccessive redactors and new-modellers. Von jer Hagen, as we said, supposes that there may have been three several series of such. Two, at all events, are clearly indicated. In their present shape, we have internal evidence that none of these Poems can be older than the twelfth century; indeed great part of the Hero1 can be proved to be considerably later. With this last it is understood that Wolfram von Eschenbach and Heinrich von Ofterdingen, two singers, otherwise noted in that era, were largely concerned; but neither is there any demonstration of this vague belief: while again, in regard to the Author of our actual Nielsen not so much as a plausible conjecture can be formed.

own merits, both in form and essence, can be named Poetical. Considering its chivalrous, romantic tone, it may rank as a piece of lite rary composition, perhaps considerably higher than the Spanish Cid; taking in its historical significance, and deep ramifications into the remote Time, it ranks indubitably and greatly higher.

It has been called a Northern Iliad; but except in the fact that both poems have a narrative character, and both sing "the destructive rage" of men, the two have scarcely any similarity. The Singer of the Nibelungen is a far different person from Homer; far inferior both in culture and in genius. Nothing of the glowing imagery, of the fierce bursting energy, of the mingled fire and gloom, that dwell in the old Greek, makes its appearance here. The German Singer is comparatively a simple nature; has never penetrated deep into life; never "questioned Fate," or struggled with fearful mysteries; of all which we find traces in Homer, still more in Shakspeare; but with meek believing submission, has taken the Universe as he found it represented to him; and rejoices with a fine childlike gladness in the mere outward shows of things. He has little power of delineating character; perhaps he had no decisive vision thereof. His persons are superficially distinguished, and not alto Some vote for a certain Conrad von Würz-gether without generic difference; but the porburg; others for the above-named Eschenbach traiture is imperfectly brought out; there lay and Ofterdingen; others again for Klingsohr no true living original within him. He has of Ungerland, a minstrel who once passed for little Fancy; we find scarcely one or two simia magician. Against all and each of which litudes in his whole Poem; and these one or hypotheses there are objections; and for none two, which, moreover, are repeated, betoken of them the smallest conclusive evidence. no special faculty that way. He speaks of the Who this gifted Singer may have been, only in "moon among stars" says often, of sparks so far as his Work itself proves that there struck from steel armour in battle, and so forth, was out One, and the style points to the latter that they were wie es wehte der wind," as if the half of the twelfth century,-remains altogether wind were blowing them." We have mendark: the unwearied Von der Hagen himself, tioned Tasso along with him; yet neither in after fullest investigation, gives for verdict, this case is there any close resemblance; the we know it not." Considering the high worth of the Nibelungen, and how many feeble

Weber, (Illustrations of Northern Antiquities, p. 39,) who rates Gorres (Zeitung für Einsiedler) as his authority.

light playful grace, still more, the Italian pomp and sunny luxuriance of Tasso are wanting in the other. His are humble, wood-notes wild; and no nightingale's, but yet a sweet

sky-hidden lark's. In all the rhetorical gifts, o say nothing of rhetorical attainments, we should pronounce him even poor.

cle he dwelt in, the very asles remain not like a fair heavenly Apparition, which indeec he was, he has melted into air, and only the Voice he uttered, in virtue of its inspired gift yet lives and will live.

To the Germans this Nibelungen Song is na turally an object of no common love; neither if they sometimes overvalue it, and vague antiquarian wonder is more common than just criticism, should the fault be too heavily visit. ed. After long ages of concealment, they have found it in the remote wilderness, still standing like the trunk of some almost antedi• luvian oak; nay with boughs on it still green, after all the wind and weather of twelve hun dred years. To many a patriotic feeling, which lingers fondly in solitary places of the Past, it may well be a rallying-point, and "Lovers Trysting-Tree."

Nevertheless, a noble soul he must have been, and furnished with far more essential requisites for Poetry, than these are: namely, with the heart and feeling of a Poet. He has a clear eye for the Beautiful and True; all unites itself gracefully and compactly in his imagination: it is strange with what careless felicity he winds his way in that complex narrative, and be the subject what it will, comes through it unsullied, and with a smile. His great strength is an unconscious instinctive strength; wherein truly lies its highest merit. The whole spirit of Chivalry, of Love, and heroic Valour, must have lived in him, and inspired him. Everywhere he shows a noble Sensibility; the sad accents of parting friends, the lamentings of women, the high daring of men, all that is worthy and lovely prolongs it self in melodious echoes through his heart. A true old Singer, and taught of Nature herself! Neither let us call him an inglorious Milton, since now he is no longer a mute one. What good were it that the four or five Letters composing his Name could be printed, and pronounced, with absolute certainty? All that was mortal in him is gone utterly; of his life, and its environment, as of the bodily taberna-Time.

For us also it has its worth. A creation from the old ages, still bright and balmy, if we visit it; and opening into the first History of Europe, of Mankind. Thus all is not oblivion but on the edge of the abyss, that separates the Old world from the New, there hangs a fair rainbow-land; which also in (three) curious repetitions, as it were, in a secondary, and even a ternary reflex, sheds some feeble twilight far into the deeps of the primeval

GERMAN LITERATURE OF THE FOURTEENTH
AND FIFTEENTH CENTURIES.*

[FOREIGN QUARTERLY REVIEW, 1831.]

Ir is not with Herr Soltau's work, and its merits or demerits, that we here purpose to concern ourselves. The old Low-German Apologue was already familiar under many shapes; its versions into Latin, English, and all modern tongues: if it now comes before our German friends under a new shape, and they can read it not only in Gottsched's prosaic Prose, and Goethe's poetic Hexameters, but also "in the metre of the original," namely, in Doggerel; and this, as would appear, not without comfort, for it is "the second edition ;"doubtless the Germans themselves will look to it, will direct Herr Soltau aright in his praiseworthy labours, and, with all suitable speed, forward him from his second edition into a third. To us strangers the fact is chiefly interesting, as another little memento of the indestructible vitality there is in worth, however rude; and to stranger Reviewers, as it brings that wondrous old Fiction, with so much else that holds of it, once more specifically into view.

The Apologue of Reynard the Fox ranks un

Reinecke der Fuchs, übersetzt ran D. W. Soltan. (ReyBard the Fox, translated by D. W. Soltau.) 2d edition, Sva, Lüneburg, 1830.

doubtedly among the most remarkable Books. not only as a German, but, in all senses, as a European one; and yet for us perhaps its extrinsic, historical character, is even more note. worthy than its intrinsic. In Literary History it forms, so to speak, the culminating point, or highest manifestation of a Tendency which had ruled the two prior centuries: ever down wards from the last of the Hohenstauffen Emperors, and the end of their Swabian Era, to the borders of the Reformation, rudiments and fibres of this singular Fable are seen, among innumerable kindred things, fashioning them. selves together; and now, after three other centuries of actual existence, it still stands visible and entire, venerable in itself, and the enduring memorial of much that has proved more perishable. Thus, naturally enough, it figures as the representative of a whole group that historically cluster round it; in studying it significance, we study that of a whole intellectual period.

As this section of German Literature closely connects itself with the corresponding section of European Literature, and indeed offers an expressive, characteristic epitome thereof, some insight into it, were such easily procurable

might not be without profit. No Literary His- | ourselves to the German aspects of the matter, torian that we know of, least of all any in examine what may lie between. England, having looked much in this direction, either as concerned Germany or other countries, whereby a long space of time, once busy enough, and full of life, now lies barren and void in men's memories, we shall here endeavour to present, in such clearness as first attempts may admit, the result of some slight researches of cur own in regard to it.

The Troubadour Period in general Literature, to which the Swabian Era in German answers, bas, especially within the last generation, attracted inquiry enough; the French have their Raynouards, we our Webers, the Germans their Haugs, Gråters, Langs, and numerous other Collectors and Translators of Minnelieder; among whom Ludwig Tieck, the foremost in far other provinces, has not disdained to take the lead. We shall suppose that this Literary Period is partially known to all readers. Let each recall whatever he has learned or figured regarding it; represent to himself that brave young heyday of Chivalry and Minstrelsy, when a stern Barbarossa, a stern Lion-heart. sang sirrentes, and with the hand that could wield the sword and sceptre twanged the melodious strings; when knights-errant tilted, and ladies' eyes rained bright influences; and suddenly, as at some sunrise, the whole Earth had grown vocal and musical. Then truly was the time of singing come; for princes and prelates, emperors and squires, the wise and the simple, men, women, and children, all sang and rhymed, or delighted in hearing it done. It was a universal noise of Song; as if the Spring of Manhood had arrived, and warblings from every spray, not indeed without infinite twitterings also, which, except their gladness, had no music, were bidding it welcome. This was the Swabian Era; justly reckoned not only superior to all preceding eras, but properly the First Era of German Literature. Poetry had at length found a home in the life of men; and every pure soul was inspired by it; and in words, or still better, in actions, strove to give it utterance.

"Believers," says Tieck, "sang of Faith; Lovers of Love; Knights described knightly actions and battles; and loving believing knights were their chief audience. The Spring, Beauty, Gayety, were objects that could never tre; great duels and deeds of arms carried away every hearer, the more surely the stronger they were painted; and as the pillars and dome of the Church encircled the flock, so did Religion, as the Highest, encircle Poetry and Reality; and every heart, in equal love humbled itself before her."

Let the reader, we say, fancy all this, and moreover that, as earthly things do, it is all passing away. And now, from this extreme verge of the Swabian Era, let us look forward into the inane of the next two centuries, and see whether there also some shadows and dim forms, significant in their kind, may not begin to grow visible. Already, as above indicated, Reinecke de Fos rises clear in the distance, as the goal of our survey: let us now, restricting *Minnelieder aus dem Schwäbischen Zeitalter. rede, 1.)

Conrad the Fourth, who died in 1254, was the last of the Swabian Emperors: and Con radin his son, grasping too early at a Southern Crown, perished on the scaffold at Naples in 1268; with which stripling, more fortunate in song than in war, and whose death, or murder, with fourteen years of other cruelty, the Sicilian Vespers so frightfully avenged, the imperial line of the Hohenstauffen came to an end. Their House, as we have seen, gives name to a Literary Era; and truly, if dates alone were regarded, we might reckon it much more than a name. For with this change of dynasty, a great change in German Literature begins to indicate itself; the fall of the Hohenstauffen is close followed by the decay of Poetry; as if that fair flowerage and umbrage, which blossomed far and wide round the Swabian Family, had in very deed depended on it for growth and life; and now, the stem being felled, the leaves also were languishing, and soon to wither and drop away. Conradin, as his father and his grandfather had been, was a singer; some lines of his, though he died in his sixteenth year, have even come down to us; but henceforth no crowned poet, except, long afterwards, some few with cheap laurel crowns, is to be met with: the Gay Science was visibly declining. In such times as now came, the court and the great could no longer patronize it; the polity of the Empire was, by one convulsion after another, all but utterly dismem bered; ambitious nobles, a sovereign without power; contention, violence, distress, everywhere prevailing. Richard of Cornwall, who could not so much as keep hold of his sceptre, not to speak of swaying it wisely; or even the brave Rudolf of Hapsburg, who manfully accomplished both these duties, had other work to do than sweet singing. Gay Wars of the Wartburg were now changed to stern Battles of the Marchfield; in his leisure hours, a good Em.. peror, instead of twanging harps, must hammer from his helmet the dints it had got in his working and fighting hours. Amid such rude tumults the Minne-Song could not but change its scene and tone; if, indeed, it continued at all, which, however, it scarcely did; for now, no longer united in courtly choir, it seemed to lose both its sweetness and its force, gradually became mute, or in remote obscure corners lived on, feeble and inaudible, till after several centuries, when, under a new title, and with far inferior claims, it again solicits some notice from us.

Doubtless, in this posture of affairs political, the progress of Literature could be little forwarded from without; in some directions, as in that of Court-Poetry, we may admit that it was

* It was on this famous plain of the Marchfield that in 1260; and was himself, in 1278, conquered and slain Ottocar, King of Bohemia, conquered Bela of Hungary, by Rudolf of Hapsburg, at that time much left to his own resources; whose talent for mending heln ets, however, it was here again, after more than five centuries, that is perhaps but a poetical tradition. Curious, moreover, the House of Hapsburg received its worst overthrow,

and from a new and greater Rudolf, namely, from Na(Vor-poleon, at Wagram, which lies in the middle of this same Marchfield.

will discover; arises in the most secret and most sacred region of man's soul, as it were in our Holy of Holies; and as for external things, depends only on such as can operate in that region; among which it will be found that Acts of Parliament, and the state of the Smithfield markets, nowise play the chief parts.

The

obstructed or altogether stopped. But why not only Court-Poetry, but Poetry of all sorts should have declined, and as it were gone out, is quite another question; to which, indeed, as men must have their theory on every thing, answer has often been attempted, but only with partial success. To most of the German Literary Historians this so ungenial condition of the With regard to this change in German LiteCourt and Government appears enough: by the rature, especially, it is to be remarked, that the warlike, altogether practical character of Ru- phenomenon was not a German, but a Eurodolf, by the imbecile ambition of his success- pean one; whereby we easily infer, so much at ors, by the general prevalence of feuds and least, that the roots of it must have lain deeper lawless disorder, the death of Poetry seems fully than in any change from Hohenstauffen Empe accounted for. In which conclusion of theirs, rors to Hapsburg ones. For now the Trouba allowing all force to the grounds it rests on, we dours and Trouveres, as well as the Minnesin. cannot but perceive that there lurks some fal- gers, were sinking into silence; the world seemed lacy; the fallacy, namely, so common in these to have rhymed itself out; those chivalrous times, of deducing the inward and spiritual ex-roundelays, heroic tales, mythologies, and quaint clusively from the outward and material; of love-sicknesses, had grown unprofitable to the tacitly, perhaps unconsciously, denying all ear. In fact, Chivalry itself was in the wane; independent force, or even life, to the former, and with it that gay melody, like its other pomp. and looking out for the secret of its vicissitudes More earnest business, not sportfully, but with solely in some circumstance belonging to the harsh endeavour, was now to be done. The latter. Now it cannot be too often repeated, graceful minuet-dance of Fancy must give where it continues still unknown or forgotten, place to the toilsome thorny pilgrimage of Unthat man has a soul as certainly as he has a derstanding. Life and its appurtenances and body; nay, much more certainly; that properly possessions, which had beer so admired and it is the course of his unseen, spiritual life, besung, now disclosed, the more they came to which informs and rules his external visible be investigated, the more contradictions. life, rather than receives rule from it; in which Church no longer rose with its pillars" like a spiritual life, indeed, and not in any outward venerable dome over the united flock;" but, action or condition arising from it, the true more accurately seen into, was a straight prisecret of his history lies, and is to be sought son, full of unclean creeping things; against after, and indefinitely approached. Poetry, which thraldom all better spirits could not but above all, we should have known long ago, is murmur and struggle. Everywhere greatness one of those mysterious things whose origin and littleness seemed so inexplicably blended: and developments never can be what we call Nature, like the Sphinx, her emblem, with her explained; often it seems to us like the wind, fair woman's face and neck, showed also the blowing where it lists, coming and departing claws of a Lioness. Now too her Riddle had with little or no regard to any the most cunning been propounded; and thousands of subtle, theory that has yet been devised of it. Least disputatious School-men were striving earnest of all does it seem to depend on court patron-ly to read it, that they might live, morally live, age, the form of government, or any modifica- that the monster might not devour them. These, tion of politics or economics, catholic as these like strong swimmers, in boundless bottomless, influences have now become in our philosophy: vortices of Logic, swam manfully, but could not it lives in a snow-clad, sulphureous Iceland. and get to land. not in a sunny, wine-growing France; flourishes under an arbitrary Elizabeth, and dies out under a constitutional George; Philip II. has his Cervantes, and in prison; Washington and Jackson have only their Coopers and Browns. Why did poetry appear so brightly after the Battles of Thermopyla and Salamis, and quite turn away her face and wings from those of Lexington and Bunker's Hill! We answer, the Greeks were a poetical people, the Americans are not; that is to say, it appeared because it did appear! On the whole, we could desire that one of two things should happen : Either that our theories and genetic histories of Poetry should henceforth cease, and mankind rest satisfied, once for all, with Dr. Cabanis's theory, which seems to be the simplest, hat "Poetry is a product of the smaller intestines," and must be cultivated medically by the exhibition of castor-oil: Or else that, in future speculations of this kind, we should endeavour to start with some recognition of the fact, once well known, and still in words admitted, that Poetry is Inspiration; has in it a certain spirituality and divinity which no dissecting-knife

On a better course, yet with the like aim. Physical Science was also unfolding itself. A Roger Bacon, an Albert the Great, are cheering appearances in this era: not blind to the greatness of Nature, yet no longer with poetic reverence of her, but venturing fearlessly into her recesses, and extorting from her many a secret; the first victories of that long series which is to make man more and more her King. Thus everywhere we have the image of con. test, of effort. The spirit of man, which once, in peaceful, loving communion with the Universe, had uttered forth its gladness in Song. now feels hampered and hemmed in, and strug gles vehemently to make itself room. Power is the one thing needfu and that Knowledge which is Power: thus also Intellect become the grand faculty, in which all the others are well nigh absorbed.

Poetry, which has been defined as "the bar monious unison of Man with Nature," could not flourish in this temper of the times. The number of poets, or rather versifiers, hence forth greatly diminishes; their style also, and topics, are different and less poetical. Mer