licious fish, allied to the salmon. It inhabits fresh being nearly identical with it, the difference merely water from August to May. After spawning in March being modifications to suit the various impurities conor the beginning of April, it returus to the sea. Their tained in the ore. (See Percy's Metallurgy.) When SMELT. SMILAX, smi'-laks (Gr.), in Bot., Sarsaparilla, the typical gen. of the nat. ord. Smilacea. The roots of several species or varieties constitute the sarsaparilla of the Materia Medica, and are so largely used in this country that upwards of 130,000 lbs. require to be annually imported. Sarsaparilla is regarded as an alterative in venereal and skin diseases, rheumatism, &c. The kind most valued is that known as Jamaica sarsaparilla, obtained from the species S. offi cinalis. It is not the produce of Jamaica, but of Central America and the northern parts of South America. Other kinds distinguished in commerce are "Lima," "lean Vera Cruz," "gouty Vera Cruz," "Lisbon " or "Brazilian," and "Honduras." Among the European species is S. aspera, the roots of which form Italian sarsaparilla. SARSAPARILLA. length is gene- the ore consists of oxide or carbonate of copper rally six or only, it is reduced to the metallic state by simple seven inches. fusion with charcoal and subsequent poling. Their generic SMILACEA, smi-lai'-se-e,in Bot., the Sarsaparilla fam., characters are: a nat. ord. of Monocotyledones, sub-class Dictyogena. Body elon- Herbs or shrubs, more or less climbing. Leaves gated, covered petiolate, net-veined, articulated. Flowers regular, with small unisexual, and dicecious or hermaphrodite. Perianth scales; two inferior, 6-parted, with all its divisions alike. Stamens dorsal fins, the 6, perigynous or rarely hypogynous; anthers introrsc. first with rays, the second fleshy without rays; ven- Ovary superior, 3-celled; stigmas 3. Fruit a berry, tral fins in a vertical line under the commencement few or many-seeded. Seeds with a minute embryo, of the first dorsal fin; teeth on the jaws and tongue albuminous. The species are distributed over various very long, two distinct rowe on each palatine bone, parts of the world, both in tropical and temperate none on the vomer except at the most anterior part; climates, being most abundant in tropical America. branchiostegous rays 8. The smelt, as a British fish, (See SMILAX.) appears to be almost exclusively confined to the eastern and western coasts of Great Britain. Their food is small fish, with crustaceous and testaceous animals. SMELTING, smelt'-ing (Dan. smelter, to fuse or melt), is the term applied to the extraction of metals from their ores by roasting and calcination. Under the articles IRON MANUFACTURE, SILVER, &c., a description of this process will be found. With regard to copper-smelting:-The principal seat of copper-smelting in Great Britain is at Swansea, in South Wales, which furnishes annually over 20,000 tons of refined metal. Two-thirds of the ore is sent from Cornwall, the rest from Cuba, Chili, and South Australia. Most of these ores contain copper and iron, in combination with sulphur and arsenic, the Chili ores often containing a large quantity of silver. After the ore is raised from the mine, it is freed from its matrix and sorted, the purest portions being broken into pieces the size of a nut. The first calcination is effected in a reverberatory furnace, the heat not being raised too high. At the end of twelve hours, the ore is converted into a black powder, containing sulphide of copper, oxide and sulphide of iron, and earthy impurities. The roasted ore is next fused with a quantity of silicious slag, by which means it is converted into a fusible slag consisting of silicate of iron and sulphides of iron and copper, which sink through the slag, forming at the bottom a heavy mass, termed a matt. The matt thus procured is, while melted, run into water, by which it is SMOKE, smoke (Sax. smoca), the exhalations, visible granulated. The product obtained is called coarse metal. vapour, or substance that escapes, or is expelled, in It is roasted once more for twenty-four hours, by which the process of combustion, from the substance burning. means the larger proportion of the sulphide of iron is Under the articles COMBUSTION, FLAME, and FUEL, converted into oxide. It is then calcined with some the principle of combustion is fully explained. Those copper ore known to contain oxide of copper and silica. fuels which consist chiefly of fixed carbon, as anthraThe oxide of copper transforms any remaining sulphide cite and the coke of bituminous coal, evolve no smoke, of iron into oxide, which is taken up by the silica to for the first movement of the carbon into the air is form a slag, through which the sulphide of copper when it combines with the oxygen to form the invisible sinks. This matt contains about 80 per cent. of cop-carbonic oxide, from which it is not again set free. In per, and is known by the name of fine metal. It is nearly every process of combustion, whether the object cast into pigs, the lower portions of which contain be the attainment of light or heat, the formation of most of the impurities, the metal extracted from the smoke should be guarded against as a waste of fuel. upper portions being known in the market as best In large cities, where bituminous coal is consumed as selected copper. The fine metal has now to be freed the common fuel, the atmosphere is constantly charged entirely from sulphur by a final calcination at a heat with clouds of smoke, which is diffused over everything. just short of that required to fuse it. During the pro- In England this was deemed a nuisance so far back as cess, the metal becomes oxidized at the surface. The the time of Queen Elizabeth, when the smiths, brewers, oxide thus formed decomposes the rest of the sulphide, and others were just commencing to use "pit coal." sulphurous acid escaping, and metallic copper re- Since that period the nuisance has increased in magnimaining behind. The metal obtained is run off into tude, and many attempts have been made to mitigate moulds, forming ingots full of bubbles, from the escape the evil by compelling manufacturers to adopt im- r of the sulphurous acid gas. These ingots, which are proved methods of combustion, or the use of smokeless known as pimple or blistered copper, from their peculiar fuel. In this way coke has come to be universally used appearance, have now to undergo the process of re- upon the railways of Great Britain. Several plans, at fining. They are placed in a reverberatory furnace, once efficient and economical, have been supplied to and kept in a melted state for upwards of twenty manufacturers. The object of these plans has been hours, to oxidate the last traces of foreign metals. either to prevent the production of smoke by effecting Slags are formed on the surface and skimmed off, and a complete combustion in the furnace, or to consume great deal of oxide is produced, which is absorbed by the smoke after it has been evolved from one fire by the metal. To reduce this oxide, the surface of the causing it to pass over another supported by smokemelted metal is covered with anthracite or charcoal, less fuel. It has been ascertained that the great mass and towards the last a young tree is thrust in. This of smoke is sent forth from fuel freshly thrown on a process, which is called poling, disengages the whole fire, and that when the fire becomes hotter the smoke of the oxygen from the oxide diffused through the diminishes: this is owing to the sweeping off of the mass. The above is as nearly as possible the method carbon before it could be fairly exposed to the further of copper-smelting as employed in this country, the action of the heat and air. This leads to the method processes adopted in Saxony and North America which adds the fuel gradually and spreads it over the Smuggling front portion of the grate, so that the smoke shall have to pass over the fire behind, and thus be consumed as it mixes with the excess of air carried along with it; hence this method of preventing smoke, by consuming it in the furnace, has been adopted very generally. So far backa 8 1785, James Watt took out a patent for consuming smoke and increasing the heat of furnace-fires. His plan was to pass the products of combustion through very hot pipes, or among, through, or near to fuel which is intensely hot, and which has ceased to smoke. C. W. Williams, in a prize essay on the prevention of the smoke nuisance, asserts that the use of hot pipes, or indeed of any extra heat besides that afforded by the fuel itself, is altogether needless, the properly. arranged admission of air being all that is required. Williams's method is to admit an abundant supply of cold air through the door and front plate of the fire through a large number of small perforations. An improvement upon this plan consists of heating the air before it is admitted. Ivison's plan for preventing smoke consists in the introduction of steam by minute jets over the fire, which is thus greatly increased in intensity without the production of smoke, and with a saving of fuel. In Jucke's arrangement, the grate-bars of a furnace are replaced by an endless chain web, which is carried round upon two rollers, the fuel being thoroughly consumed in the passage. Other inventions are based on supplying fuel to the fires from beneath, so that the products of combustion must pass through the incandescent coals above before escaping.-Ref. Charles W. Williams On the Combustion of Coal and the Prevention of Smoke; Prideaux's Rudimentary Treatise on Fuel; and Fairbairn's Useful Information for Engineers. Sneezing every person so offending, and every person aiding SNAKE-NUT. (See OPHIOCARYON.) SNAKE-WOOD, a beautiful fancy wood obesized from Piratinera guianensis, a plant belonging to the Bread fruit order. Owing to the peculiar markings upon & it is sometimes called letter-wood. SMUGGLING, smug'-gling (Du, smokkelln, to smuggle), in Law, is the offence of importing or exporting prohibited articles, or articles without paying the duties SNAKES, snaikes (Sax. snaca, a snake), (Angvir), 3 imposed thereon by the laws of the customs and excise. gen. of Ophidian reptiles differing much in their strie Under this head, however, the customs laws comprise ture and most of their characters from the true serpents. various offences not strictly included in the above defi- The animals which are included in this genus am nition. Thus, smuggled goods comprise "dutiable among the most harmless on the face of the earth. goods unshipped in the United Kingdom, on which There are several species, or rather genera, varyat customs or other duties have not been paid or secured; from the common blind-worm of Britain (de prohibited goods imported into any part of the United fragilis) to the Acoritias of warmer climates; but they Kingdom; goods clandestinely or illegally removed are all equally harmless. The external character st from any warehouse or other place of security in the scales on the back and belly alike in size, whereas which they may have been deposited for home con- the true serpents have those on the belly larger and sumption or exportation; goods prohibited to be ex-free at their posterior edge. The upper jawbones art ported, put on board any ship, or brought to any quay articulated immediately to the skull and the intersan or other place to be shipped for exportation; goods lary bones, so that on opening the mouth the animal prohibited to be exported found in any package pro- cannot raise the upper jaw; and as they can depress duced to any officer as containing goods not so pro- the lower jaw only a little way, their gapes Pay hibited; goods subject to duty or restriction on narrow. Their motion is not that of the serpents, but importation, or prohibited to be imported, found consists of a series of alternate archings and straightconcealed on board any ship or boat within any port enings. of the United Kingdom; goods of the latter class found, either before or after landing, to have been so concealed on board in such port." In all these cases the goods, together with any goods found packed with, or used in concealing them, are liable to for- SNEEZING, sneez'-ing (Goth. #nesa), is a concen feiture. Any officer of customs, &c., employed in the motion of the muscles of respiration. It is precede prevention of smuggling, may search any person on by a deep inspiration that fills the lungs; the board ship, or who shall have landed, if he has good paesages are then closed at the fauces, a sudden an reason to suppose that such person has uncustomed or violent contraction of the muscles of expiration tas prohibited goods about him; but before search such place, and the passages by the mouth and the S person may require to be taken before any justice or canal are suddenly opened simultaneously, or the nast the collector, or other principal officer of customs, canal alone. It is always occasioned by some irritati who shall determine the reasonableness of the cause, affecting the inner membrane of the nose, ar, st lear and either discharge such'person, or order him or her to it is always felt there, though it may exist in st be searched. Any person just landed from a ship, who, other part, and may be produced by very difer apon being questioned, shall deny having any foreign causes. The irritation must possess a certain der goods in his possession, and such be afterwards dis- of acuteness; for every one must have felt that covered, they shall be forfeited, and the person shall this is not the case, the disposition to sneeze sadjer also forfeit thrice the value of the goods. If any passes off, though the act had been desired, sai lpersons, to the number of three or more, armed with seemed on the point of being accomplished. În sem firearms or other offensive weapons, shall, within the respects it resembles coughing. Various superst United Kingdom, or any of the ports, harbours, or notions and customs have been associated with the creeks thereof, be assembled in order to be aiding, or of sneezing. The custom of blessing people when shall aid, in the illegal landing, running, or carrying sneeze is mentioned by various ancient authors away of prohibited goods, or goods liable to any duties is so ancient that Aristotle professes ignorance & which have not been paid or received; or in rescuing origin of it. Among the Greeks, it was gem or taking away such goods after seizure; or in rescuing regarded as a good omen. Sneezing has beer any person apprehended for any offence made felony to cause death; and it is reported that in the by any act relating to the customs; or in preventing of Gregory the Great an epidemic distemper pres the apprehension of any person guilty of such offence, in Italy, which carried off by sneezing all who wer 1550 SNIPE. Soap Snipe seized by it. It is, however, very rarely dangerous, ducing a sensation of whiteness. Under the microand is frequently regarded as a favourable symptom. scope, these crystallized particles present every variety SNIPE, snipe (Du. snip).-The snipes belong to the of shape. Dr. Netlis, of Middlesburg, was the first family of the Scolopacida. There are several species; to describe them in 1740. Dr. Scoresby also, in his those most familiar to the English sportsman and orni- account of the Arctic regions, states that he colthologist being the common snipe, the jack snipe, and lected as many as ninety-six varieties of snow; these the solitary snipe. The common snipe (Scolopax Gal-he arranged in five separate classes, of which the three linago) is indigenous to this country, breeding in small leading forms were the lamellar, the pyramidal, and numbers in most, if not in all, the counties along the the spicular. The presence of air in snow renders it southern line of the English coast; but producing its opaque, otherwise it would be transparent like ice and eggs and young much more frequently in the northern other crystallized bodies. Regular crystals of snow are counties of England, in Ireland, in Scotland and its only found where the air is still and the temperature islands, than in the south. In addition to our native very cold; they do not, therefore, often occur in temsnipes, great perate regions. In the polar regions, snow has been flights come seen of red, orange, and salmon colour. This phenoannually from menon occurs both in the fixed and floating ice, and Norway and seems to result in some cases from vegetable and in other parts of others from animal matter suspended in the water and northern Eu- deposited upon the surrounding ice. In some cases, rope; seldom snow-storms have been known to present a luminous remaining appearance, covering every object with a sheet of fire. long in one In general, the electricity of snow is positive, and by situation, but chemical analysis it has been found that snow-water moving from contains a greater proportion of oxygen than rain or place to place. river-water, a fact which accounts for its superior Towards the activity in causing iron to rust, &c. In the economy end of March of nature, snow answers many valuable purposes. By or the begin- its gradual melting in high regions, it serves to supply ning of April, streams of running water, which a sudden increase in the snipes have nearly perfected their nuptial plumage, and form of rain would convert into destructive torrents or select appropriate places for nidification. The nest is standing pools. In many countries snow tempers the very slight, consisting only of a few bits of dead grass burning heat of summer, by cooling the winds which or dry herbage, collected in a depression on the pass over it. On the other hand, in colder climates ground, and sometimes upon or under the side of a snow serves as a defence against the severity of winter, tuft of grass or bunch of rushes; the eggs four in where it protects plants against the frost, and serves number, of a pale yellowish or greenish-white, the as a shelter to animals, which bury themselves in it. larger end spotted with two or three shades of brown; An open, snowless winter is destructive to vegetation the length of the egg about one inch six lines, by one even in more temperate regions, and Alpine plants inch one line in breadth. Marshes, moist meadows, have perished in the mild winter of England for want and, in frosty weather, the edges of rushy rills, are of their usual protective covering of snow. The elevathe haunts of the snipe. In such situations they tion at which mountains are covered with perpetual have been seen pushing their bills quite up to the base, snow is called the snow-line, or plane of perpetual in search of their food, which consists of worms, insects, snow. The snow-line on the northern side of the and small molluscs. The whole length of the common Himalayan mountains is about 17,000 feet; on Chimsnipe is about ten inches and a half; the length of the borazo, 15,802 feet. The altitude of perpetual snow beak about two inches and three-quarters. In winter, under the equator was fixed by Humboldt at 15,748 the beak is dark-brown at the end, pale reddish- feet: towards the poles it is considerably lower. The brown at the base; all the upper part of the head very snow-line of the Alps under 46° north latitude is only dark brown, divided along the centre by a single pale 8,860 feet, and that of the Pyrenees about 8,850 feet. brown streak; the back dark brown, slightly spotted At the North Cape, in latitude 71°, it is only 2,240 feet. with pale brown; the throat white; the cheeks, neck, and The position of the snow-line in all mountains, howupper breast mottled with black and light ferruginous ever, depends so much on variable causes, such as the patches; lower breast and belly white; the quills form of the summits, the comparative altitude, and black, the upper ones being tinged with white, and other physical features of the surrounding country, the those next the body striated and barred with light particular exposure of the mountain, &c., that no ferruginous; the tail consists of fourteen black feathers, general rule can be laid down for determining the barred and spotted with dull orange-red towards the altitude of perpetual snow. Ref. Dr. J. D. Hooker's end. The colours of the plumage after the spring Himalayan Journals, and Mr. W. Hopkins's paper moult are brighter and more brilliant than after the On the Causes of Changes of Climate, in the 8th vol. of autumnal moult. The jack snipe (Scolopax Gallinula) the "Journal of the Geographical Society." is a winter visitor only to this country. It is smaller SNUFF. (See TOBACCO.) than the common snipe, and is rather a rare bird; is SOAP, sope (Sax. sape).-Strictly speaking, a soap may usually found alone, and will frequently almost allow be defined as a salt consisting of a fatty acid in comitself to be trodden on before it will rise. When it bination with a metallic base. In common parlance, does, it wings its way so beavily as to discompose the however, it is applied to the soluble salts formed by sportsman as much by its sluggish flight as the larger the union of the fatty acids with the alkalies. If oil variety often do by their rapid unsteady dartings. It and water be shaken together, mechanical union will feeds on bare boggy ground; but when not search- take place; but on allowing the mixture to rest, the oil ing for food, it chooses sheltered situations among will gradually separate and float on the surface of the strong rushes, or coarse long grass. The solitary snipe water. If a small quantity of caustic soda or potash (Scolopax major) is a very rare bird in England, and be added to the mixture, and it be then agitated, is sometimes called the great snipe, being from four- union will take place between the three bodies, a milky teen to sixteen inches in length. The head-quarters fluid being formed. If a sufficient quantity of alkali of this bird is the north of Europe. It requires soli- has been added, and the solution be boiled, it gradually tude and perfect quiet, and is seldom found except becomes clear, giving rise to a soapy fluid, which froths where there is a great extent of marshy meadow, strongly on agitation, presenting all the properties of There are two other snipes which exceed this in size, a solution of soap. If to a portion of this clear liquid found in the hilly districts of India; and a third from a strong solution of common salt is added, a peculiar Mexico, whose size is superior to that of a woodcock. curdling is produced. The liquid separates into a SNOW, sno (Sax. snaw).-When the temperature of clear fluid, containing glycerine, while the curdy porthe atmosphere falls below the freezing-point of water, tion rises to the surface. This substance is the fatty the particles of moisture are precipitated in the form acid of the oil, in combination with the alkali used of flaky crystals of ice, called snow. These crystals and a certain proportion of water, and if pressed and are united together in such a manner as to reflect light dried, exhibits the properties of ordinary soap. Ordito the eye in great abundance from all; thus pro-nary soap is freely soluble in both hot and cold water; but if any of the earths, such as lime, be present, an foundation of authority in every government. "Men," insoluble compound is immediately formed; or, in says Locke, "being by nature all free, equal, and indecommon language, the soap curdles, from the water pendent, no one can be put out of his estate and subbeing hard. Ordinary soaps are of two kinds,-soft jected to the political power of another, without his and hard. Soft soap is a combination of some fatty own consent. Whosoever, therefore, out of a state of or oily substance with potash, and contains an excess nature, unite into a community, must be understood of alkali; hence it is used for cleansing purposes where to give up all the power necessary to the ends for which very highly detergent powers are required. The hard they unite in society, to the majority of the commasoaps are combinations of the fatty acids with soda; nity;" "and this is done by barely agreeing to unite the principal varieties being yellow soap, made from into one political society." "This is that, and that only, tallow and palm-oil, and containing a certain propor- which did or could give beginning to any lawful govern tion of resin to give it lathering properties; curd soap, ment in the world." We have, however, no evidence which is made from tallow, only a small portion of of any government having been formed in this way; olive-oil or lard being added to give it softness; mottled but, on the other hand, we have evidence of not a ferr soap, which is prepared from tallow, palm-oil, and having originated without any pretence of a fair conkitchen stuff, and contains a portion of insoluble iron sent, or voluntary subjection of the people. — Ref. soap, giving it a marbled appearance. Marseilles and Locke's Essay on Civil Government; Hume's Essay on Carlisle soaps are made of olive-oil and soda, a small the Original Contract. quantity of sulphate of iron and sulphuretted lye being SOCIALISM, so'-she-äl-izm, the doctrine taught by an added to them while in a pasty condition. The object enthusiast named Robert Owen, who proposed to of marbling soaps with an insoluble matter is to show reorganize society by banishing old motives of action, that they contain but little moisture, since, if too including religion in any of its special forms, and to large a proportion of water were present, the colour-establish the social edifice on the basis of co-operation ing matter would sink to the bottom and remain there, and mutual usefulness. instead of being diffused through the mass. The SOCIETY, 80-si-e-te (Lat. socius, a companion), is s manufacture of the different soaps is very similar, number of persons associated together for some purdiffering only in minor details. An alkaline lye is first pose, religious, benevolent, literary, political, &c. prepared in large iron boilers, called coppers, heated (See ASSOCIATION.) When formed for convivial or by steam, by boiling in them a mixture of soda, ash, social purposes, they are commonly denominated lime, and water. After boiling for some time, the clubs. (See CLUB, FRIENDLY SOCIETIES, BUILDING steam is turned off, and the lye is allowed to cool, car- SOCIETIES, ASIATIC SOCIETIES, INSURANCE, &c.) bonate of lime being deposited. The clear lye is then drawn off, weakened by the addition of water, and added to the tallow, fat, or oil, in the proportion of 150 | gallons of weak lye to one ton of fat. When ebullition takes place, stronger lyes are added by degrees until the soap feels no longer greasy. Common salt is then added, which separates the glycerin and other impurities derived from the grease. These are drawn off and thrown away, stronger lyes being added, and the boiling continued until the whole of the soap separates. It is then transferred to frames to cool, a small portion of the lye contained in the soap gradually separating and accumulating in the lower part of the frame. This portion is poured off and added to the next charge. When perfectly hard, which occurs in three or four days, the soap is cut up into bars with wires. Curd soap is generally remelted and forcibly stirred or crutched to break up the grain. It is the purest commercial soap. Fancy soaps are made from pure curd soap, scented with various perfumes, and coloured with a variety of tints to suit the prevailing fashion. Honey soap contains no honey. It is made of good yellow soap, scented with oil of citronella. Real old Brown Windsor soap is curd soap which has turned brown by age. It is now, however, made artificially, by mixing caramel with white soap. Transparent soap is made by dissolving white soap in spirit and evaporating. Besides being used for ordinary domestic purposes, soap is employed in various manufactures as a detergent for cleansing silk, wool, and the different fabrics made from them. SOCINIANS, so-sin'-e-anz, in Church Hist., are a sect of Christians, named after their founder, Faustus Socinus, a native of Sienna, born in 1539, and died 1604. The Socinians maintain that the Father alone is truly and properly God; that Jesus Christ was a mere man, who had not existence before he was conceived by the Virgin Mary, and that the Holy Ghost is no distinct person. They own that the name of God is given in Scripture to Jesus Christ, but contend that it is only a deputed title, investing him, however, with an absolute sovereignty over all created beings, and rendering him an object of worship to men and angels. They deny the doctrines of satisfaction and imputed righteousness, and regard original sin and predestination as scholastie chimeras. They likewise maintain the sleep of the soul after death, and they say that it will be raised again with the body at the resurrection. In the present day, the term Socinian is commonly applied to such as bold the Unitarian doctrines, which are similar, but nos exactly the same. (See UNITARIANISM.) SOCRATIC PHILOSOPHY, 80-krat'-ik, is the usme given to that system or rather method of reasoning. which had Socrates for its author (born B.c. 468, cied 399). This "Father of Philosophy" did not attempt to evolve any perfect system of doctrine. He wished rather to divert men's minds from the vanity of setting themselves up as philosophers, and make them employ their thoughts in learning and investigating, instead of prematurely commencing at once to expound and instruct, with crude and superficial notions and prisciples. He saw the errors and defects of the systems around him, and probably also foresaw that the taste for inquiry into truth, which he was ever awakening, must soon lead to the formation of a philosophical Eiterature at Athens. It is common to compare Socrates with Bacon, and there is much in common between the two philosophers; neither of them left behind him any definite system upon specific articles of philosophy; and each rather showed the way to think, than the results of thought. The object of each was not to think for men, but to teach men to think for themselves; and their purposes were alike directed to "utility," to the profitable, as distinguished from the merely formal and the practically inapplicable. The physical theorists of his time were to Socrates what the schoolmen were to Bacon; and hence their paths lay in opposite directions, Bacon conducting science into the world of matter, while Socrates led her inta the heart and actions of man. (See BACONIAN PE LOSOPHY.) The labour of Socrates was "directed to the establishment of true moral and religious pris ciples, in opposition to the false and mischieron SOCIAL CONTRACT, so'-she-al, is a term applied by principles which he observed were commonly ad philosophers to a supposed contract, which is the upon and avowed in the world. The excellence and SOAP-TEST, CLARK'S, in Chem., a ready method of testing the hardness of water, devised by the late Dr. Clark, of Aberdeen. It is founded on the fact of the hardening constituents of water possessing the property of destroying the lathering powers of a solution of soap. Potash in soda soap is therefore dissolved in water until a certain strength is obtained. This is determined by means of a solution of sulphate of lime, in water of known hardness, the soap solution being weakened or strengthened until a certain measure, say an ounce, indicates 1 grain of carbonate of lime, or 1° of hardness. A pint of the water to be examined is then taken, and the standard soap solution is added until the mixture lathers on agitation, the amount used indicating the degree of hardness. Thus, supposing 2 ounces to have been required, it would indicate 2 grains of hardening salt per pint, or 20 grains per gallon, i. e. 20° of hardness of Clark's scale. SOBRALIA, so-brai'-le-u, in Bot., a gen. of the nat. ord. Orchidaceae. One species is said to yield in Panama a kind of vanilla, which is called chica. 1552 Soda supremacy of self-knowledge is what he was ever inculcating; and of self-knowledge, not as a matter of intellectual curiosity, or for its value as a science, but in order to self-government and to happiness." "His first effort then was to open the minds of men to a perception of the value of this knowledge and of their own need of it." He did not value particular studies, because they ministered to the necessities or conveniences of human life; hence, he was no utilitarian, in the modern signification of that term. He disparaged physical science and all merely physical knowledge, in comparison with that which was useful for human life. Aristotle informs us, that in the sphere of general philosophy, two discoveries are justly attributed to Socrates, the inductive method of inquiry and the practice of seeking general definitions. There may be some ground for supposing that Plato has improved upon the conversations which he reports of his master; but the Socrates of Xenophon proceeds on the same plan. He is said never to have been weary of investigating. Professing to know nothing himself, he put his questions so as to show the ignorance of others. He proceeded very much as the skilful investigator of nature in the present day does with his experiments, by a strict system of analysis. Having obtained an answer, he proceeds to found on that another question, studiously directed to elicit the answer which might serve for further inquiry; and so on, until he had reduced the first proposition to some simple elements, clearly showing its truth or falsehood. "He, far beyond all I ever knew," says Xenophon, "when he spoke carried conviction to his hearers." Vast as nature, all minds could find their systems in him; and, accordingly, from his teaching, with new and regulated energies, we find philosophy giving birth to various systems; the most prominent of which are those of Plato and Aristotle. -Ref. Hampden's Fathers of Greek Philosophy; Butler's Lectures on Ancient Philosophy; Ritter's History of Philosophy; Grote's History of Greece. Soda Manufacture of soda, or soda as it is commonly called, is the most important chemical manufacture of Great Britain. The unlimited stores of coal, chalk, salt, and sulphur existing in this country have been the means of placing us at the head of the soda trade, some notion of the vastness of which may be gained by the fact that the annual manufacture of this article has reached nearly 2,500,000 tons, made in fifty different manufactories by over 10,000 workmen. Previous to the establishment of the French republic in 1793, soda was obtained almost entirely from the ashes of certain plants growing on the seaboards of Spain, Sicily, Scotland, and Ireland. The French revolution having cut off all the supplies of alkali from France, a commission of chemists was appointed by the republic to consider the best means of supplying the want from French sources. About four years before, a simple chemist and druggist, named Leblanc, had established a manufactory for making soda from common salt; but, owing to revolutionary troubles, his experiments had been discontinued. Through the exertions of the commission, however, the manufactory was re-established at the national expense. Leblanc's process, strange to say, has never been improved, its simplicity being so great as to resist the endeavours of the most eminent chemists, both practical and theoretical, to alter even its details. For at least twenty years, the heavy duty of £30 per ton on common salt prevented the use of the process in this country; the impost, however, was removed in 1823, and the soda manufacture has progressed since that date until it has assumed its present gigantic proportions. The preparation of carbonate of soda from common salt may be divided into three principal operations:-1. the production of salt-cake, or crude sulphate of soda; 2. the transformation of the sulphate of soda into black ash, or impure carbonate mixed with sulphide of sodium, by roasting with chalk and coal; 3. the extraction of soda ash, or dry carbonate, by lixiviation with water and evaporation to dryness. The first process is performed by placing about 6 cwt. of ordinary salt in a strong iron pan, and mixing it with an equal weight of oil of vitriol. The mixture is then removed to a reverberatory furnace, and the flame allowed to play on its surface until the whole of the hydrochloric acid is driven off, and the chloride of sodium transformed into a dry mass of sulphate of soda, or salt-cake, as it is termed. The salt used is obtained from the salt-springs of Cheshire, and the sulphuric acid is made from iron pyrites from Lancashire, Wicklow, Spain, or Portugal. The hydroSODA, CARBONATES OF.-There are three of these,-chloric acid produced is condensed, and used either the ordinary mono-carbonate, or common washing-soda, for the production of chlorine in the manufacture of NaO.CO,, which, in its crystalline form, contains bleaching-powder, or for extracting the copper from ten equivalents of water; the sesquicarbonate, the iron pyrites used in making the sulphuric acid. 2NaO.3CO,+4aq, which occurs in the mineral kingdom The second process, the making of the black ash, or as trona and urao; and the bicarbonate, NaO.CO,. impure carbonate of soda, is effected by mingling the HO.CO,, which is prepared by passing carbonic acid sulphate of soda, or salt-cake, formed in the first prothrough a concentrated solution of the carbonate cess, with chalk and powdered coal in the proportions until saturation takes place. It is also prepared by of three parts of sulphate of soda, three of chalk, and exposing the crystallized mono-carbonate to the action two of coal. The mixture is thrown into a reverberaof a current of carbonic acid; but in this method of tory furnace in quantities of two hundredweight and making it, only the outside portions of the converted a half at a time, and frequently stirred until melted. crystals should be used, the inner parts being only Towards the conclusion of the operation, a violent partially changed. It is ground and dried at a very effervescence takes place, carbonic oxide escaping in gentle heat, care being taken to avoid a high tempera-large quantities, and burning with a green or yellow ture, which would cause the formation of the sesqui-flame; the products being carbonic oxide, which burns; carbonate. Bicarbonate of soda crystallizes in prisms. sulphide of lime, which remains behind; and carIt occurs in commerce as a white crystalline powder, bonate of soda, with which it is mixed. This interwhich is gradually converted into the sesquicarbonate mediate action is the foundation of the whole process. by exposure to the air. It is much used in medicine, In practice, an excess of coal and chalk is employed, having a much less unpleasant taste than either the mono- or sesquicarbonate, from which it is readily distinguished by giving no precipitate with the magnesia salts. The properties of the mono-carbonate are described under SODA MANUFACTURE. SODA, 80'-da, in Chem., NaO, the protoxide of the alkaline metal sodium. It may be procured in an anhydrous state by burning the metal in dry air or oxygen. It is of a white colour, greedily abstracting water from the air, which cannot be expelled by heat. In this state it forms hydrate of soda, or caustic soda. It is so similar in its properties to hydrate of potash, that it need not be fully described here. Its commercial manufacture is detailed under the head of SODA MANUFACTURE. SODA, HYPOSULPHITE OF.-This important salt is now manufactured in tons for photographic purposes and as an antichlore, to extract the last traces of chlorine from paper pulp. It is prepared by fusing equal weights of carbonate of soda and flower of sulphur, and transmitting sulphurous acid through the solution of impure sulphide of sodium thus formed. The liquid is evaporated, and hyposulphite of soda crystallizes from the solution in bold prisms. SODA MANUFACTURE. The preparation of carbonate as much of the coal burns away, and an excess of lime is required in order to prevent the formation of any of the soluble sulphides of calcium. The amount of carbonate of soda contained in black ash is about 20 per cent. It is extracted from the mass by breaking it into small fragments, and digesting it with warm water for several hours in large vats provided with falso bottoms, the last and weakest washings being used to act on fresh portions of black ash. When the lixivium is sufficiently concentrated, it is transferred to evaporating pans. The residue left behind is known as soda waste, and consists of a mixture of oxysulphide of calcium and unburnt coal. The efforts of numerous chemists have been fruitlessly employed for the last fifty years in endeavouring to utilize this waste pro |