Slug Smelt long as the leg and thigh; so that if the animal febrile symptoms. The strength requires to be at. SMELL, smell, in living animals, is the power or SLUG, slug (Limar), a gen. of air-breathing naked animal is provided with a special nerve, called the faculty of perceiving odours. For that purpose, the gastropodous molluscs. They have an elongated body, olfactory nerve, in which alone this faculty resides. In and for a mantle a fleshy compact disk, which occupies man, the filaments of this nerve are distributed in the anterior part of the body alone, and covers the minute arrangements in the mucous pulmonary cavity only. This disk contains, in many covering the interior and upper cavities of the nose. species, a small oblong and flat shell, or, at least, a (See NOSE.) The branches are distributed principally membrane calcareous secretion in lieu of it. They feed on herbs in close plexuses, but the mode of termination of the and fruits, to which they do much damage. They filaments is not yet satisfactorily determined. Besides deposit their ova at any time of spring or summer, the sense of smell, the nasal cavities are endowed with when the weather is moist, and bury themselves in the common sensibility by the nasal branches of the first earth during drought and frost. SMALL-POX, mawl poks (Lat. variola), is an erup-by those cases in which the sense of smell is lost, and second divisions of the fifth nerve, as is proved tive febrile disease, which, happily, is not now nearly while the party still remains susceptible of sensations of 30 prevalent as it once was. It seems very doubtful cold, heat, itching, tickling, &c. The olfactory nerve whether this disease was at all known to the ancients; is susceptible of an infinite variety of states, dependent and, according to some Arabic historians, it came first on the nature of the external stimulus by which it is from Ethiopia into Arabia about A.D. 572. The wars brought into a state of activity. All animals do not which were carried on in the East, and particularly perceive the same odours in an equal degree. Carni the Crusades in the 12th and 13th centuries, introduced vorous animals, for instance, have the power of deit into Europe, first into Spain and France, and then tecting by the smell the special peculiarities of animal into other countries. This disease commonly com- matters, and of tracking other animals by the scent, mences with the usual febrile symptoms; as rigors, but apparently no sensibility to the odours of plants pain in the back and loins, great prostration of strength, and flowers; while, on the other hand, herbivorous followed by heat and dryness of the skin, a hard and animals are peculiarly sensitive to the latter, and bare frequent pulse, loss of appetite, pain in the epigastrum, little sensibility to animal odours. with nausea, vomiting, headache, and sometimes de- many animals in respect of the acuteness of smel, bai lirium or convulsions. About the third day, an erup- his sphere of susceptibility to various odours is more Man is inferior to tion of small hard red-coloured pimples makes its uniform and extended. Odours in the case of anima appearance about the face and neck, and gradually living in the air arise from substances suspended in a extends over the trunk and extremities. The pimples state of extremely fine division in the atmosphere, gradually ripen into pustules, which, on the eighth gaseous exhalations, often of so subtile a nature that day, generally begin to break, and crusts or scabs form, they can be discovered by no other agent than the these last falling off in four or five days more. The sense of smell itself. The odorous matters also reques severity of the disease varies much in different in- to be transmitted in a current through the sins, stances, but is almost always in direct relation to the which is effected by the respiratory organs; and tens quantity of the eruption. When the pustules are our perception of them is increased by repeated a numerous, they run together, and form an irregular inspirations, as in sniffing. They are in all esses outline; when fewer, they are distinct, and of a regu- solved in the mucus of the mucous membrane before th larly circumscribed circular form. technically called variola confluens, the other variola must not be either too moist or too dry. The cans The former is affect the olfactory nerve; and hence this en discreta; the former being never free from danger, the difference in the effect of different odos the latter seldom or ever dangerous. The most im- known. Great differences in this respect essa portant difference between the two forms is in the different individuals, many odours which are secondary fever, which sets in about the eighth day of thought agreeable being to some persons the eruption, or just when the maturation of the pus-and different persons describe differently he ser tules is complete. It is slightly marked in the distinct tions which arise from the same odorous s small-pox, but generally very intense and perilous in Further, the acuteness of this sense differs great? most instances of the confluent; being the period at different individuals, and there seems to be in È which death oftenest occurs. panied by sore throat, salivation, and frequently diar-of sight, to certain colours. Both kinds are accom- persons insensibility to certain odours, and in the rhoea. A peculiar disagreeable odour also usually odours into seven different classes (1) Arom proceeds from the body of the patient. Like measles the carnation; (2) fragrant, as the lily; (3) sobre Linnæus bas ri and scarlatina, this disease frequently gives rise to as musk; (4) alliaceous, as garlic; (5) fetid, as others of a troublesome or dangerous nature; as glan- rag-wort, valerian; (6) virulent, as Indian pi dular swellings, abscesses, pleurisy, loss of sight, con- nauseous, as the gourd. Professor Bain sumption, &c. Small-pox is the effect of specific more philosophical classification; viz. — (1) E contagion, communicated by contact, or through the odours, or such as have the effect of stonalscar & air. There is no disease of which the contagion is so reviving the system, as eau-de-Cologne (2) sure, and which operates at a greater distance, than suffocating odours, which have a damping szi individual more than once. It is not a little remarkable of a pastrycook's kitchen; (3) the ali that of small-pox; but it rarely attacks the same couraging effect upon the powers of life. as the odours, that pervert the action of that a small quantity of the matter taken from a sponging it with tepid vinegar and water. Small doses Intellect. 1518 SMELT, smelt (Sax.), (Osmerus), the Efi sem be other SMELT. SMILAX, smi'-läks (Gr.), in Bot., Sarsaparilla, the typical gen. of the nat. ord. Smilacea. The roots of several species or varieties constitute the sarsaparilla of the Materia Medica, and are so largely used in this country that upwards of 130,000 lbs. require to be annually imported. Sarsaparilla is regarded as an alterative in venereal and skin diseases, rheumatism, &c. The kind most valued is that known as Jamaica sarsaparilla, obtained from the species S. efficinalis. It is not the produce of Jamaica, but of Central America and the northern parts of South America. Other kinds distinguished in commerce are "Lima," ""lean Vera Cruz," "gouty Vera Cruz," "Lisbon " licious fish, allied to the salmon. It inhabits fresh being nearly identical with it, the difference merely water from August to May. After spawning in March being modifications to suit the various impurities conor the beginning of April, it returus to the sea. Their tained in the ore. (See Percy's Metallurgy.) When length is gene- the ore consists of oxide or carbonate of copper rally six or only, it is reduced to the metallic state by simple seven inches. fusion with charcoal and subsequent poling. Their generic SMILACEE, smi-lai'-se-e,in Bot., the Sarsaparilla fam., characters are: a nat. ord. of Monocotyledones, sub-class Dictyogene. Body elon- Herbs or shrubs, more or less climbing. Leaves gated, covered petiolate, net-veined, articulated. Flowers regular, with small unisexual, and dicecious or hermaphrodite. Perianth scales; two inferior, 6-parted, with all its divisions alike. Stamens dorsal fins, the 6, perigynous or rarely hypogynous; anthers introrse. first with rays, the second fleshy without rays; ven- Ovary superior, 3-celled; stigmas 3. Fruit a berry, tral fins in a vertical line under the commencement few or many-seeded. Seeds with a minute embryo, of the first dorsal fin; teeth on the jaws and tongue albuminous. The species are distributed over various very long, two distinct rows on each palatine bone, parts of the world, both in tropical and temperate none on the vomer except at the most anterior part; climates, being most abundant in tropical America. branchiostegous rays 8. The smelt, as a British fish, (See SMILAX.) appears to be almost exclusively confined to the eastern and western coasts of Great Britain. Their food is small fish, with crustaceous and testaceous animals. SMELTING, smelting (Dan. smelter, to fuse or melt), is the term applied to the extraction of metals from their ores by roasting and calcination. Under the articles IRON MANUFACTURE, SILVER, &c., a description of this process will be found. With regard to copper-smelting:-The principal seat of copper-smelting in Great Britain is at Swansea, in South Wales, which furnishes annually over 20,000 tons of refined metal. Two-thirds of the ore is sent from Cornwall, the rest from Cuba, Chili, and South Australia. Most of these ores contain copper and iron, in combination with sulphur and arsenic, the Chili ores often containing a large quantity of silver. After the ore is raised from the mine, it is freed from its matrix and sorted, the purest portions being broken into pieces the size of a nut. The first calcination is effected in a reverberatory furnace, the heat not being raised too high. At the end of twelve hours, the ore is converted into a black powder, containing sulphide of copper, oxide and sulphide of iron, and earthy impurities. The roasted ore is next fused with a quantity of silicious slag, by which means it is converted into a fusible slag consisting of silicate of iron and sulphides of iron" Brazilian," and "Honduras." Among the Euroand copper, which sink through the slag, forming at the pean species is S. aspera, the roots of which form bottom a heavy mass, termed a matt. The matt thus pro- Italian sarsaparilla. cured is, while melted, run into water, by which it is SMOKE, smoke (Sax. smoca), the exhalations, visible granulated. The product obtained is called coarse metal. vapour, or substance that escapes, or is expelled, in TheIt is roasted once more for twenty-four hours, by which the process of combustion, from the substance burning. means the larger proportion of the sulphide of iron is Under the articles COMBUSTION, FLAME, and FUEL, converted into oxide. It is then calcined with some the principle of combustion is fully explained. Those copper ore known to contain oxide of copper and silica. fuels which consist chiefly of fixed carbon, as anthraThe oxide of copper transforms any remaining sulphide cite and the coke of bituminous coal, evolve no smoke, of iron into oxide, which is taken up by the silica to for the first movement of the carbon into the air is orm a slag, through which the sulphide of copper when it combines with the oxygen to form the invisible inks. This matt contains about 80 per cent. of cop-carbonic oxide, from which it is not again set free. In er, and is known by the name of fine metal. It is nearly every process of combustion, whether the object ast into pigs, the lower portions of which contain be the attainment of light or heat, the formation of host of the impurities, the metal extracted from the smoke should be guarded against as a waste of fuel. pper portions being known in the market as best In large cities, where bituminous coal is consumed as lected copper. The fine metal has now to be freed the common fuel, the atmosphere is constantly charged tirely from sulphur by a final calcination at a heat with clouds of smoke, which is diffused over everything. ist short of that required to fuse it. During the pro- In England this was deemed a nuisance so far back as ss, the metal becomes oxidized at the surface. The the time of Queen Elizabeth, when the smiths, brewers, cide thus formed decomposes the rest of the sulphide, and others were just commencing to use "pit coal." lphurous acid escaping, and metallic copper re- Since that period the nuisance has increased in magniaining behind. The metal obtained is run off into tude, and many attempts have been made to mitigate oulds, forming ingots full of bubbles, from the escape the evil by compelling manufacturers to adopt im- r the sulphurous acid gas. These ingots, which are proved methods of combustion, or the use of smokeless own as pimple or blistered copper, from their peculiar fuel. In this way coke has come to be universally used pearance, have now to undergo the process of re- upon the railways of Great Britain. Several plans, at ung. They are placed in a reverberatory furnace, once efficient and economical, have been supplied to d kept in a melted state for upwards of twenty manufacturers. The object of these plans has been urs, to oxidate the last traces of foreign metals. either to prevent the production of smoke by effecting igs are formed on the surface and skimmed off, and a complete combustion in the furnace, or to consume eat deal of oxide is produced, which is absorbed by the smoke after it has been evolved from one fire by metal. To reduce this oxide, the surface of the causing it to pass over another supported by smokelted metal is covered with anthracite or charcoal, less fuel. It has been ascertained that the great mass towards the last a young tree is thrust in. This of smoke is sent forth from fuel freshly thrown on a cess, which is called poling, disengages the whole the oxygen from the oxide diffused through the The above is as nearly as possible the method copper-smelting as employed in this country, the cesses adopted in Saxony and North America 39. or SARSAPARILLA. fire, and that when the fire becomes hotter the smoke diminishes: this is owing to the sweeping off of the carbon before it could be fairly exposed to the further action of the heat and air. This leads to the method which adds the fuel gradually and spreads it over the Smuggling front portion of the grate, so that the smoke shall have to pass over the fire behind, and thus be consumed as it mixes with the excess of air carried along with it; hence this method of preventing smoke, by consuming it in the furnace, has been adopted very generally. So far backa s 1785, James Watt took out a patent for consuming smoke and increasing the heat of furnace-fires. His plan was to pass the products of combustion through very hot pipes, or among, through, or near to fuel which is intensely hot, and which has ceased to smoke. C. W. Williams, in a prize essay on the prevention of the smoke nuisance, asserts that the use of hot pipes, or indeed of any extra heat besides that afforded by the fuel itself, is altogether needless, the properlyarranged admission of air being all that is required. Williams's method is to admit an abundant supply of cold air through the door and front plate of the fire through a large number of small perforations. An improvement upon this plan consists of heating the air before it is admitted. Ivison's plan for preventing smoke consists in the introduction of steam by minute jets over the fire, which is thus greatly increased in intensity without the production of smoke, and with a saving of fuel. In Jucke's arrangement, the grate-bars of a furnace are replaced by an endless chain web, which is carried round upon two rollers, the fuel being thoroughly consumed in the passage. Other inventions are based on supplying fuel to the fires from beneath, so that the products of combustion must pass through the incandescent coals above before escaping.-Ref. Charles W. Williams On the Combustion of Coal and the Prevention of Smoke; Prideaux's Rudimentary Treatise on Fuel; and Fairbairn's Useful Information for Engineers. Sneezing every person so offending, and every person aiding therein, shall be guilty of felony, and is liable to pens servitude for life, or not less than fifteen years, or to be imprisoned for not exceeding three years. If any person (in company with more than four other per sons) be found with any goods liable to forfeiture under any act relative to the customs or excise; or (in company with one other person within five miles of the coast or of any tidal river) be found carrying offensive arms or weapons, or disguised in any way, he shall be adjudged guilty of felony, and may be sentenced to penal servitude for not more than seven or less than three years. And persons assaulting or obstructing any such officers as above mentioned (or their assistants) in the performance of their duty, by force or violence, are punishable with penal servitude for not more than seven or less than three years, or with imprisonment with hard labour for not more than three years. These and the other enactments bearing upos the subject are principally contained in act 16 & 17 Vict. c. 107 (commonly called the Customs Consolidation Act, 1853), as amended by 18 & 19 Viet. SNAILS, snailz (Sax. snægel, a snail), (Helicide), ↑ fam. of gasteropodous molluscs living on the land, and breathing air by means of lungs, and possessed of s well-developed external shell. They respire free air in a closed chamber lined with pulmonic vessels, usually placed on the front of the back of the animal, and covered by the shell, and having an opening closed by a valve on the side. They are hermaphrodite, with reciprocal impregnation. The teeth are numerous, and placed in many cross series on the lingual membrane; the head is furnished with four retractile tentsecla, the two upper possessing eyes at the apex. The whoir body is very glutinous. SNAKE-NUT. (See OPHIOCARYON.) SNAKE-WOOD, a beautiful fancy wood obtained from Piratinera guianensis, a plant belonging to the Breadfruit order. Owing to the peculiar markings upa 5 it is sometimes called letter-wood. SMUGGLING, 8mug'-gling (Du. smokkelln, to smuggle), in Law, is the offence of importing or exporting prohibited articles, or articles without paying the duties SNAKES, snaikes (Sax. snaca, a snake), (Angris), a imposed thereon by the laws of the customs and excise. gen. of Ophidian reptiles differing much in their struc Under this head, however, the customs laws comprise ture and most of their characters from the true serpents. various offences not strictly included in the above defi- The animals which are included in this geans st nition. Thus, smuggled goods comprise "dutiable among the most harmless on the face of the earth goods unshipped in the United Kingdom, on which There are several species, or rather genera, varying customs or other duties have not been paid or secured; from the common blind-worm of Britain (d prohibited goods imported into any part of the United fragilis) to the Acoritias of warmer climates; bet iter Kingdom; goods clandestinely or illegally removed are all equally harmless. The external characters sra, from any warehouse or other place of security in the scales on the back and belly alike in size, whereas which they may have been deposited for home con- the true serpents have those on the belly larger s sumption or exportation; goods prohibited to be ex-free at their posterior edge. The upper jawbones 52? ported, put on board any ship, or brought to any quay articulated immediately to the skull and the internat or other place to be shipped for exportation; goods lary bones, so that on opening the mouth the simsh prohibited to be exported found in any package pro- cannot raise the upper jaw; and as they can depress duced to any officer as containing goods not so pro- the lower jaw only a little way, their gape is very hibited; goods subject to duty or restriction on narrow. Their motion is not that of the serpents, but importation, or prohibited to be imported, found consists of a series of alternate archings and straightconcealed on board any ship or boat within any port enings. of the United Kingdom; goods of the latter class found, either before or after landing, to have been so concealed on board in such port." In all these cases the goods, together with any goods found packed with, or used in concealing them, are liable to for- SNEEZING, sneezing (Goth, snesa), is a convalejet feiture. Any officer of customs, &c., employed in the motion of the muscles of respiration. It is preceden prevention of smuggling, may search any person on by a deep inspiration that fills the Jungs; the board ship, or who shall have landed, if he has good passages are then closed at the fauces, a saddra kr reason to suppose that such person has uncustomed or violent contraction of the muscles of expiration takes prohibited goods about him; but before search such place, and the passages by the mouth and the person may require to be taken before any justice or canal are suddenly opened simultaneously, or the the collector, or other principal officer of customs, canal alone. It is always occasioned by some iris who shall determine the reasonableness of the cause, affecting the inner membrane of the nose, qr, st and either discharge such'person, or order him or her to it is always felt there, though it may exist be searched. Any person just landed from a ship, who, other part, and may be produced by very f upon being questioned, shall deny having any foreign causes. The irritation must possess a certain de goods in his possession, and such be afterwards dis- of acuteness; for every one must have felt that covered, they shall be forfeited, and the person shall this is not the case, the disposition to sneeze sal also forfeit thrice the value of the goods. If any passes off, though the act had been desired, # persons, to the number of three or more, armed with seemed on the point of being accomplished. In s firearms or other offensive weapons, shall, within the respects it resembles coughing. Various super United Kingdom, or any of the ports, harbours, or notions and customs have been associated with creeks thereof, be assembled in order to be aiding, or of sneezing. The custom of blessing people wh shall aid, in the illegal landing, running, or carrying sneeze is mentioned by various ancient authors away of prohibited goods, or goods liable to any duties is so ancient that Aristotle professes ignorance which have not been paid or received; or in rescuing origin of it. Among the Greeks, it was or taking away such goods after seizure; or in rescuing regarded as a good omen. Sneezing has bee any person apprehended for any offence made felony to cause death; and it is reported that in by any act relating to the customs; or in preventing of Gregory the Great an epidemic distemper pr the apprehension of any person guilty of such offence, in Italy, which carried off by sneezing all 1550 SNIPH. seized by it. It is, however, very rarely dangerous, ducing a sensation of whiteness. Under the microand is frequently regarded as a favourable symptom. scope, these crystallized particles present every variety SNIPE, snipe (Du. snip).-The snipes belong to the of shape. Dr. Netlis, of Middlesburg, was the first family of the Scolopacide. There are several species; to describe them in 1740. Dr. Scoresby also, in his those most familiar to the English sportsman and orni- account of the Arctic regions, states that he colthologist being the common snipe, the jack snipe, and lected as many as ninety-six varieties of snow; these the solitary snipe. The common snipe (Scolopax Gal-he arranged in five separate classes, of which the three linago) is indigenous to this country, breeding in small leading forms were the lamellar, the pyramidal, and numbers in most, if not in all, the counties along the the spicular. The presence of air in snow renders it southern line of the English coast; but producing its opaque, otherwise it would be transparent like ice and eggs and young much more frequently in the northern other crystallized bodies. Regular crystals of snow are counties of England, in Ireland, in Scotland and its only found where the air is still and the temperature islands, than in the south. In addition to our native very cold; they do not, therefore, often occur in temsnipes, great perate regions. In the polar regions, snow has been flights come seen of red, orange, and salmon colour. This pheno annually from menon occurs both in the fixed and floating ice, and Norway and seems to result in some cases from vegetable and in other parts of others from animal matter suspended in the water and northern Eu- deposited upon the surrounding ice. In some cases, rope; seldom snow-storms have been known to present a luminous remaining appearance, covering every object with a sheet of fire. long in one In general, the electricity of snow is positive, and by situation, but chemical analysis it has been found that snow-water moving from contains a greater proportion of oxygen than rain or place to place. river-water, a fact which accounts for its superior Towards the activity in causing iron to rust, &c. In the economy end of March of nature, snow answers many valuable purposes. By or the begin- its gradual melting in high regions, it serves to supply ning of April, streams of running water, which a sudden increase in the snipes have nearly perfected their nuptial plumage, and form of rain would convert into destructive torrents or select appropriate places for nidification. The nest is standing pools. In many countries snow tempers the very slight, consisting only of a few bits of dead grass burning heat of summer, by cooling the winds which or dry herbage, collected in a depression on the pass over it. On the other hand, in colder climates ground, and sometimes upon or under the side of a snow serves as a defence against the severity of winter, tuft of grass or bunch of rushes; the eggs four in where it protects plants against the frost, and serves number, of a pale yellowish or greenish-white, the as a shelter to animals, which bury themselves in it. larger end spotted with two or three shades of brown; An open, snowless winter is destructive to vegetation the length of the egg about one inch six lines, by one even in more temperate regions, and Alpine plants inch one line in breadth. Marshes, moist meadows, have perished in the mild winter of England for want and, in frosty weather, the edges of rushy rills, are of their usual protective covering of snow. The elevathe haunts of the snipe. In such situations they tion at which mountains are covered with perpetual have been seen pushing their bills quite up to the base, snow is called the snow-line, or plane of perpetual in search of their food, which consists of worms, insects, snow. The snow-line on the northern side of the and small molluscs. The whole length of the common Himalayan mountains is about 17,000 feet; on Chimsnipe is about ten inches and a half; the length of the borazo, 15,802 feet. The altitude of perpetual snow beak about two inches and three-quarters. In winter, under the equator was fixed by Humboldt at 15,748 the beak is dark-brown at the end, pale reddish- feet: towards the poles it is considerably lower. The brown at the base; all the upper part of the head very snow-line of the Alps under 46° north latitude is only dark brown, divided along the centre by a single pale 8,860 feet, and that of the Pyrenees about 8,850 feet. brown streak; the back dark brown, slightly spotted At the North Cape, in latitude 71°, it is only 2,240 feet. with pale brown; the throat white; the cheeks, neck, and The position of the snow-line in all mountains, how upper breast mottled with black and light ferruginous ever, depends so much on variable causes, such as the patches; lower breast and belly white; the quills form of the summits, the comparative altitude, and black, the upper ones being tinged with white, and other physical features of the surrounding country, the those next the body striated and barred with light particular exposure of the mountain, &c., that no ferruginous; the tail consists of fourteen black feathers, general rule can be laid down for determining the barred and spotted with dull orange-red towards the altitude of perpetual snow.-Ref. Dr. J. D. Hooker's end. The colours of the plumage after the spring Himalayan Journals, and Mr. W. Hopkins's paper moult are brighter and more brilliant than after the On the Causes of Changes of Climate, in the 8th vol. of autumnal moult. The jack snipe (Scolopax Gallinula) the "Journal of the Geographical Society." is a winter visitor only to this country. It is smaller than the common snipe, and is rather a rare bird; is SOAP, sope (Sax. sape).-Strictly speaking, a soap may usually found alone, and will frequently almost allow be defined as a salt consisting of a fatty acid in comitself to be trodden on before it will rise. When it bination with a metallic base. In common parlance, does, it wings its way so beavily as to discompose the however, it is applied to the soluble salts formed by sportsman as much by its sluggish flight as the larger the union of the fatty acids with the alkalies. If oil variety often do by their rapid unsteady dartings. It and water be shaken together, mechanical union will feeds on bare boggy ground; but when not search- take place; but on allowing the mixture to rest, the oil ing for food, it chooses sheltered situations among will gradually separate and float on the surface of the strong rushes, or coarse long grass. The solitary snipe water. If a small quantity of caustic soda or potash (Scolopar major) is a very rare bird in England, and be added to the mixture, and it be then agitated, is sometimes called the great snipe, being from four- union will take place between the three bodies, a milky teen to sixteen inches in length. The head-quarters fluid being formed. If a sufficient quantity of alkali of this bird is the north of Europe. It requires soli- has been added, and the solution be boiled, it gradually tude and perfect quiet, and is seldom found except becomes clear, giving rise to a soapy fluid, which froths where there is a great extent of marshy meadow. strongly on agitation, presenting all the properties of There are two other snipes which exceed this in size, a solution of soap. If to a portion of this clear liquid found in the hilly districts of India; and a third from a strong solution of common salt is added, a peculiar Mexico, whose size is superior to that of a woodcock. curdling is produced. The liquid separates into a SNOW, no (Sax. enaw).-When the temperature of clear fluid, containing glycerine, while the curdy porthe atmosphere falls below the freezing-point of water, tion rises to the surface. This substance is the fatty the particles of moisture are precipitated in the form acid of the oil, in combination with the alkali used of flaky crystals of ice, called snow. These crystals and a certain proportion of water, and if pressed and are united together in such a manner as to reflect light dried, exhibits the properties of ordinary soap. Ordito the eye in great abundance from all; thus pro-nary soap is freely soluble in both hot and cold water; SNUFF. (See TOBACCO.) jected to the political power of another, without his own consent. Whosoever, therefore, out of a state of nature, unite into a community, must be understood to give up all the power necessary to the ends for which they unite in society, to the majority of the comme nity;" "and this is done by barely agreeing to unite into one political society." "This is that, and that only, which did or could give beginning to any lawful govern ment in the world." We have, however, no evidence of any government having been formed in this ; but, on the other hand, we have evidence of not a few having originated without any pretence of a fair e sent, or voluntary subjection of the people.-Ref Locke's Essay on Civil Government; Hume's Essay on the Original Contract. SOCIALISM, 80'-she-al-izm, the doctrine taught by a enthusiast named Robert Owen, who proposed reorganize society by banishing old motives of action, including religion in any of its special forms, and to establish the social edifice on the basis of co-operatist and mutual usefulness. SOCIETY, 80-si'-e-te (Lat. socius, a companion), iss number of persons associated together for some p pose, religious, benevolent, literary, political, t. (See ASSOCIATION.) When formed for convivial or social purposes, they are commonly denominated clubs. (See CLUB, FRIENDLY SOCIETIES, BUILDING SOCIETIES, ASIATIC SOCIETIES, INSURANCE, &c.) but if any of the earths, such as lime, be present, an foundation of authority in every government, "Men," insoluble compound is immediately formed; or, in says Locke, "being by nature all free, equal, and inde common language, the soap curdles, from the water pendent, no one can be put out of his estate and subbeing hard. Ordinary soaps are of two kinds,-soft and hard. Soft soap is a combination of some fatty or oily substance with potash, and contains an excess of alkali; hence it is used for cleansing purposes where very highly detergent powers are required. The hard soaps are combinations of the fatty acids with soda; the principal varieties being yellow soap, made from tallow and palm-oil, and containing a certain proportion of resin to give it lathering properties; curd soap, which is made from tallow, only a small portion of olive-oil or lard being added to give it softness; mottled soap, which is prepared from tallow, palm-oil, and kitchen stuff, and contains a portion of insoluble iron soap, giving it a marbled appearance. Marseilles and Carlisle soaps are made of olive-oil and soda, a small quantity of sulphate of iron and sulphuretted lye being added to them while in a pasty condition. The object of marbling soaps with an insoluble matter is to show that they contain but little moisture, since, if too large a proportion of water were present, the colouring matter would sink to the bottom and remain there, instead of being diffused through the mass. The manufacture of the different soaps is very similar, differing only in minor details. An alkaline lye is first prepared in large iron boilers, called coppers, heated by steam, by boiling in them a mixture of soda, ash, lime, and water. After boiling for some time, the steam is turned off, and the lye is allowed to cool, carbonate of lime being deposited. The clear lye is then drawn off, weakened by the addition of water, and added to the tallow, fat, or oil, in the proportion of 150 gallons of weak lye to one ton of fat. When ebullition takes place, stronger lyes are added by degrees until the soap feels no longer greasy. Common salt is then added, which separates the glycerin and other impurities derived from the grease. These are drawn off and thrown away, stronger lyes being added, and the boiling continued until the whole of the soap separates. It is then transferred to frames to cool, a small portion of the lye contained in the soap gradually separating and accumulating in the lower part of the frame. This portion is poured off and added to the next charge. When perfectly hard, which occurs in three or four days, the soap is cut up into bars with wires. Curd soap is generally remelted and forcibly stirred or crutched to break up the grain. It is the purest commercial soap. Fancy soaps are made from pure curd soap, scented with various perfumes, and coloured with a variety of tints to suit the prevailing fashion. Honey soap contains no honey. It is made of good yellow soap, scented with oil of citronella. Real old Brown Windsor soap is curd soap which has turned brown by age. It is now, however, made artificially, by mixing caramel with white soap. Transparent soap is made by dissolving white soap in spirit and evaporating. Besides being used for ordinary domestic purposes, soap is employed in various manufactures as a detergent for cleansing silk, wool, and the different fabrics made from them. SOCINIANS, 80-sin'-e-anz, in Church Hist., are a sect of Christians, named after their founder, Fasts Socinus, a native of Sienna, born in 1539, and died 16 The Socinians maintain that the Father alone is truly and properly God; that Jesus Christ was a mere mas, who had not existence before he was conceived by the Virgin Mary, and that the Holy Ghost is no distimet person. They own that the name of God is gita Scripture to Jesus Christ, but contend that it is on deputed title, investing him, however, with an shee sovereignty over all created beings, and rendering an object of worship to men and angels. They de the doctrines of satisfaction and imputed righteousness and regard original sin and predestination as schcasti chimeras. They likewise maintain the sleep of the after death, and they say that it will be raised with the body at the resurrection. In the present the term Socinian is commonly applied to such as the Unitarian doctrines, which are similar, but exactly the same. (See UNITARIANISM.) SOCRATIC PHILOSOPHY, so-krat'-ik, is the given to that system or rather method of re which had Socrates for its author (born 24h, c 399). This "Father of Philosophy" did to evolve any perfect system of doctrine. He es rather to divert men's minds from the vanity of secti themselves up as philosophers, and make them em their thoughts in learning and investigating, ses of prematurely commencing at once to expos instruct, with crude and superficial notions and pr ciples. He saw the errors and defects of the sys around him, and probably also foresaw that the for inquiry into truth, which he was ever awake must soon lead to the formation of a philosophical SOAP-TEST, CLARK'S, in Chem., a ready method of testing the hardness of water, devised by the late Dr. Clark, of Aberdeen. It is founded on the fact of the hardening constituents of water possessing the property rature at Athens. It is common to compare Sc of destroying the lathering powers of a solution of soap. Potash in soda soap is therefore dissolved in water until a certain strength is obtained. This is determined by means of a solution of sulphate of lime, in water of known hardness, the soap solution being weakened or strengthened until a certain measure, say an ounce, indicates 1 grain of carbonate of lime, or 10 of hardness. A pint of the water to be examined is then taken, and the standard soap solution is added until the mixture lathers on agitation, the amount used indicating the degree of hardness. Thus, supposing 23 ounces to have been required, it would indicate 21 grains of hardening salt per pint, or 20 grains per gallon, i. e. 20° of hardness of Clark's scale. SOBRALIA, 80-brai'-le-d, in Bot., a gen. of the nat. ord. Orchidaceae. One species is said to yield in Panama a kind of vanilla, which is called chica. with Bacon, and there is much in common betwee two philosophers; neither of them left behind hi definite system upon specific articles of phils and each rather showed the way to think, than results of thought. The object of each was bet think for men, but to teach men to think for the selves; and their purposes were alike directed "utility," to the profitable, as distinguished from merely formal and the practically inapplicable. physical theorists of his time were to Socrates the schoolmen were to Bacon; and hence their p lay in opposite directions, Bacon conducting s into the world of matter, while Socrates led her the heart and actions of man. (See BACONIAN P LOSOPHY.) The labour of Socrates was "directe the establishment of true moral and religion SOCIAL CONTRACT, 80'-she-al, is a term applied by principles which he observed were commonl ciples, in opposition to the false and mischi philosophers to a supposed contract, which is the upon and avowed in the world. The excellence A 1552 |