cess appearing to go on more rapidly than the absor-versally diffused through all matter, and is capable bent. In this way the heart is often greatly enlarged of producing various phenomena; such as expansion, in bulk, and its operations seriously interfered with. fusion, vaporization, and thermo-electric currents. It is usually distinguished into three kinds,-(1) simple, There is nothing absolutely known as to the cause of when the walls of the heart, or its divisions, are heat. The question as to whether it is a substance or thickened, without any diminution in the capacity of an accident has been discussed, without result, since the cavities; (2) eccentric, or aneurismal, when the the times of Bacon. By those who consider heat to walls are thickened, and the cavities likewise enlarged; be a material substance, it is called caloric, and is supand, (3) concentric, when the cavities are diminished posed to be a subtle fluid universally diffused, and in proportiou to the thickening of the walls. The first capable of permeating the densest substances. The of these is the least common, and the second parts of this fluid are also supposed to be mutually the most frequent; and any of them may affect a repulsive, but attracted by the material particles of single cavity or the whole heart. From the force bodies; thus accounting for expansion and contraction. with which the blood is propelled in such cases The other effects of heat are accounted for on princibeing greatly increased, the tendency is to produce ples analogous to those on which the undulatory theory hæmorrhages, aneurism of the aorta, apoplexy, &c. of light is founded. Those who regard heat as merely The pulsations are frequently regular but strong, accidental to matter, consider that the artificial prosometimes even visibly raising the bedclothes, and the duction of heat is accompanied by vibratory motions chest is bulged out over the part. Rest, abstinence, in the interior molecules of the heated substances. and more or less depletion, according to circum- This theory is open to a great objection, for heat is stances, are the proper means to be employed in such propagated through a vacuum; and even if it is supa case, and usually, with care and perseverance, the posed that all space is filled with a fluid, in order to symptoms will be much alleviated. Dilatation of the account for solar heat, the hypothesis loses its simheart is where one or more of the cavities are enlarged plicity, and is very vague. It is better to observe the in size without the substance of the heart itself being properties of heat, and from them to measure and increased. It is sometimes caused by increased action calculate its effects, than to speculate on its nature; of the heart, and may be produced by excessive exer- and instead of using the word caloric to conceal our tion or strong excitement of any kind; it frequently ignorance, to use the word heat, in order to denote also arises from want of sufficient muscular strength that state or condition of a body which excites in us in the heart itself, or from some obstruction to the the sensation of heat. Every existing substance may free passage of the blood. It is characterized by want be looked upon as a source of heat. The most imporof vigour in the circulation, and by feebleness and tant of these is the sun, and its heat, when condensed inability for exertion in the patient; he will often be by means of a lens, is very intense. Without the benign exhausted by the loss of even a small quantity of influence of the sun's heat, all nature would be bound blood, and may even be carried off during a trifling in the adamantine chains of cohesion. The conflagrahemorrhage. Attention to the general health, so as tion of every combustible on the face of the earth to strengthen the patient and restore the circulation, would not compensate for twenty-four hours' absence while all exciting causes are to be avoided, are the of the solar rays. The second source of heat is mechanimeans to employ in such circumstances. The valves cal, and consists in the friction or rubbing together of of the heart are subject to a variety of diseases which solid substances. In this operation, strong mechanical interfere with their proper action: these are among force is opposed to the force of cohesion or adhesion, the most easily detected of the organic diseases, on and heat is generated by the reaction of the two. Two account of the sounds produced by them. The valves pieces of wood rubbed rapidly together quickly befrequently become thickened, or even cartilaginous or come hot, and when the force and velocity are great Osseous, so that they do not act freely, or close imper- enough, combustion ensues. The sparks of the comfectly, leading to obstruction or regurgitation of blood. mon flint and steel are small particles of the metal Being connected with the endocardium, or internal struck off by the stone, and burning under the influlining membrane, diseases of the valves often result ence of the heat elicited by the blow. A third source from repeated attacks of endocarditis. These obstruc- of heat is chemical. All cases of common combustion, tions tend to produce oppressions of the breath, apo- and all artificial processes for obtaining light and heat, plectic fits, sanguineous and serous congestions,-as are familiar examples of this action. But in all cases bemoptysis, albuminaria, dropsy, &c. The mode of of this sort, the heat evolved, however copious and treatment in such cases will depend upon the particular intense, is limited, and proportionate to the quantities symptoms present, otherwise the general mode of of the substances reacting upon one another. Heat is treatment indicated above, of strengthening the tone obtained from a fourth source, which is probably allied of the system and equalizing the action of the heart, to the last; namely, electricity. Another source of is to be followed.-Ref. Watson's Lectures on the Prac-heat is physiological, and exists in ourselves. Heat is tice of Physic; Copland's Dictionary of Medicine; a product of animal life, and we can feel it and judge of English Encyclopædia-Arts and Sciences. it by our own sensations; we can increase it by muscuHEARTBURN, hart'-burn (Lat. cardialgia, from Gr.lar exertion, and can communicate the sensation of heat kardia, the heart, and algos, pain), in Med., is an to others. When referred to our sensations directly, uneasy sensation in the stomach, ascending with acid however, heat and cold become merely comparative eructations and a burning heat into the throat. Some- terms, and depend upon the temperature of our bodies times it is attended with oppression, faintness, nausea, at the time of experience. Any estimation, therefore, and an inclination to vomit, or a plentiful discharge of of heat by sensation must be very vague. In all these a clear, lympid, fluid-like saliva, commonly termed sources of heat, notwithstanding the copious evolution waterbrash. In some cases a gnawing or burning pain of the wonderful agent, there is no loss of material is felt, chiefly at the cardia, or upper orifice of the substance. Solar heat has been concentrated by a stomach; whence the name is derived. It is usually number of powerful lenses on one scale of a balance of a symptom of dyspepsia, but it may also be occasioned extreme sensibility; but no derangement of equilibrium by other complaints; as worms, inflammation of the ensued. As far as experiment can show, heat must stomach or intestines, various diseases of the heart, consequently be looked upon as without weight,-an &c. It may also be occasioned by violent emotions of imponderable agent. Heat radiates from all bodies in the mind. Indigestible foods, as animal fat, oil, but- straight lines and in all directions; and, like radiant ter, cheese, &c., are very apt to occasion it. The best light, its intensity decreases as the square of the disremedies are alkalies combined with mild aperients, tance from the source of the rays: thus, if a thersuch as magnesia, or tartrate of soda, and rhubarb. mometer protected from the influence of all disturbing The great thing, however, is to restore the healthy causes be observed to rise a certain number of degrees action of the stomach, and to avoid such substances as at one inch distance from a heated surface, it will indicate tend to produce it. (See DYSPEPSIA.) four times less heat at two inches; nine times less at three inches; and so on. Reflected heat also follows HEAT, heat (Sax. heat, hat), a term applied in ordi- the same law as reflected light; and that the angle of nary language either to the sensation excited in us by reflection is equal to the angle of incidence may be the approximation of a warm body or to the cause of proved by holding a bright metallic plate before a fire. that sensation. Heat, as a great natural agent, is uni-When we see the reflection of the fire, we also feel the

HEARTH-MONEY. (See FUMAGE.)

heat. If two concave mirrors are fixed at a distance simple experiment will show the comparative powers of 10 or 15 feet apart, with their axes in the same line, of conduction of solid, liquid, and aeriform bodies. and their faces parallel and opposed to each other, upon Metals, when heated to 1200, will severely burn a hand placing a thermometer in the focus of one, it will be placed upon them, on account of the facility with which found sensitive to the effects of a heated body placed the heat travels towards it. Water will not scald, proin the focus of the other. A piece of ice placed before vided the hand be kept without motion in it, till it ene mirror will cause the mercury in the thermometer reaches the temperature of 150°; while the contact of to descend, not through the radiation of cold, but air can be endured at 300°. In the Philosophical Transthrough the radiation of heat from the thermometer actions, there is an account of an experiment, by Sir to the piece of ice. The best absorbents of heat are Joseph Banks and some others, who ventured into a the best radiators, and the best reflectors are the room heated to 260°, and remained there for a conworst radiators. The increase of bulk for the same siderable time without serious inconvenience; and in increase of heat varies much in different classes of several processes of manufacturing art, it is necessary substances. It is small in solids, larger in liquids, for workmen to enter stoves heated as high as 300, and greatest of all in aëriform bodies. From the from which no injurious effects follow. The bad confreezing to the boiling point of water, 350 cubic ducting power of air is usefully applied for many purinches of lead become 351; 800 cubic inches of poses of convenience, and in the arts. Double doors iron, 801; and 1,000 eabic inches of glass, 1,001. are put to furnaces, in order to prevent the heat from Liquids sugment their volumes in different proportion being conducted outwards; and ice-houses are doublewhen subjected to the same change of temperature; cased, in order to prevent the heat from being conbut every seriform substance, provided it be not inducted inwards. In selecting substances for clothing, contact with a liquid, expands in the same proportion; the same principles are observed. Articles of dress 1,000 parts of air becoming 1,373, when heated from are warm in proportion to the quantity of air which 32° to 212 Fahrenheit. These expansions take place they contain in their texture. Furs, feathers, wool, gradually, and when the heat is withdrawn, the bodies and down, retard the passage of heat in this way; and return to their original bulks, by corresponding regular for the same reason, snow preserves the warmth of the contractions. Accurate measurement and precision of earth in frosty weather. Although heat travels by instruments form the perfection of science. The cor- conduction with difficulty through liquid and aëriform rect measurement of heat cannot be effected by the bodies, both these classes of substances speedily beunassisted senses. But by observing the expansion or come heated. This is effected by processes of circulaenlargement of a certain quantity of air, or of a liquid, tion, or rapid change in the relative position of adjaer a solid, an apparatus is obtained by which the effects cent particles; and the operation is called convection. of heat can be accurately measured and calculated. When a liquid is heated, it expands and becomes This is the principle of the thermometer. The first in- lighter; the heated and lighter particles rise to the vention of this useful instrument is ascribed to Sanc- surface, and a new portion comes in contact with the torio, as Italian physician, who lived about 1590. (See source of heat; and so the motion continues as long THERMOMETER.) One of the most important properties as the heat continues to be communicated. The same of heat is conduction. If a stick of charcoal is held in process of convection takes place, but much more the flame of a candle, no disagreeable sensation of heat rapidly, in elastic fluids. The expansive and ascenwill be perceived, even when the heated extremity is sional power of hot air is ordinarily illustrated in the at a small distance from the fingers. But a metallic fire-balloon. Montgolfier first applied this power to wire will speedily burn the hand at a greater distance the construction of a balloon, and Pilatre de Rosier from the extremity, and before any part becomes red first ventured to float upon the atmosphere in it. (See even. The process by which the heat is conveyed BALLOON.) The ventilation of ordinary rooms, and the along the metal is called conduction. This property ascending currents in chimneys, are both due to the varies in different solids, and it may be roughly stated expansion of air by heat. In some of the grand operathat dense bodies possess conductive power in the tions of nature, the convection of heat is of great imgreatest proportion. Thus, metals are the best con-portance. It is principally by the circulation of elastic ductors; stones are next; hard woods next; and so on. and non-elastic fluids that the distribution of tempeDiamonds and other gems are much better conductors rature over the globe is regulated. Thus the heat of of heat than glass; and thus may be distinguished from the tropics is moderated by the cold currents from the it, by touching the lips, which in general are very sen- poles; and the low temperature of the Arctic and sitive to changes of temperature. The gems feel cold, Antarctic regions is qualified by the warm currents when compared with the glass. The metals themselves from the equator. The constant current of the tradevary much in their conducting power. Many useful winds owes its primary impulse and direction to this contrivances for the convenient management of hot cause. The gulf-stream is another instance of the bodies are dependent upon the differences of this same action. This great current sets across the Atproperty; thus wooden handles are used to protect lantic, from the coasts of Africa, towards the shores of the hand from a hot teakettle, or the handle of a the Gulf of Mexico; from thence it passes northwards aiver teapot is insulated from the body, by the insertion to the banks of Newfoundland; thus transferring a of small plates of ivory, which prevent the conduction large portion of warm water to the cold regions of the of heat to any disagreeable extent. By breaking the north. There is a singular exception to the general cohesion of solids, their conducting power is much rule that all substances expand under the influence of decreased. Thus at the siege of Gibraltar, red-hot heat. This exception is water. When a large body of cannon-balls were carried to the batteries on wooden water, such as that in a deep lake, has been cooled wheelbarrows, the bottoms of which were covered with down to 40°, by the perpendicular circulation described, layers of sand. Heat is conducted by liquids with the vertical motion ceases, and the surface water besuch difficulty that some philosophers have doubted comes lighter as the temperature falls, finally setting whether they are not altogether destitute of the power. into a sheet of ice. The water underneath is protected They acquire heat, however, under particular circum- from the further influence of the cold, by the cessation stances, with such facility, that it might be hastily of the circulation, and its almost perfect power of nonconcluded that they possess the power of conduction conduction. If this were not the case in this climate, in an eminent degree. That liquids conduct heat very a lake once frozen could never be liquefied again. imperfectly, can easily be proved by experiment. If a Thus far heat has been treated as a force freely develglass tube, four or five inches in length, be nearly filled oped, which could be measured by our sensations, and with water, and the upper part be heated in a spirit- by the thermometer and pyrometer. Heat, however, lamp, the water will boil on the surface, while the tube also enters, as it were, into the composition of bodies, can be held in the hand at the lower end, without in- loses its character of temperature, and becomes conconvenience, as the water is not able to conduct the cealed or latent to our instruments and our feelings. heat downwards. In all such experiments, however, When equal volumes of the same fluid, at different the heat is ultimately conveyed down the solid sides of temperatures, are mixed, they afford the mean temthe containing vessel. The difficulty of determining perature of the two. A pint of water at 50°, mixed the power of conduction in aeriform bodies is much with a pint at 100°, will show, by the thermometer, a greater than that of liquids. It has never been proved temperature of 75°. If a quantity of mercury, howthat they are capable of condusting heat at all. A ever, at 100°, be mixed with an equal measure of water

Heat

Hebrew Language and Literature

at 40°, the resulting temperature will be 60°, or and new continents, the most rapid decrease of mean 10° lower than the mean; so that the mercury temperature is between the parallels of latitude 40° loses 40°, and the water only gains 20°; yet the water and 45°. This circumstance has had an important must contain all the heat which the mercury has lost. influence in the civilization and industry of the people From this it appears that water has a greater capacity inhabiting that zone; as the slight variations of latitude for heat than mercury; viz., it requires a larger quan- produce changes in the vegetable productions that be tity of heat to raise it to a given temperature. When come objects of rural economy. When adjacent counmatter passes from the solid to the liquid state, or tries thus differ much in their products, stimulation of from the liquid to the aëriform state, examples industry and vigorous commercial intercourse are the are to be found of latent heat. In these processes results: civilization is highly advanced by both these a large quantity of heat is absorbed, combined, or fixed; circumstances.-Ref. Humboldt's Isothermal Lines and in the opposite changes from seriform to liquid, and the Distribution of Heat over the Globe. and from liquid to solid states, a quantity of heat is HEATH, OF HEATHER, heeth, heth-er (Sax. hath), in set free, and becomes sensible. If equal weights of its common signification, means a place or portion of water at 32 and of water at 212° are mixed, they will waste land overgrown with shrubs of any kind, or a show a temperature of 122°; but equal weights of ice moor over which the prevailing plants or vegetation at 32° and water at 212° form a mixture, the tempera-consist of one or more of the several species of heath, ture of which is 52°; the water losing 160° of tempera- or erica. Heaths are common in Scotland, Ireland, ture, while the ice only gains 20°. Therefore, 140° of some parts of England, and in countries having a heat are expended in changing the ice from the solid similar climate on the continent; and many hundreds to the liquid state. Dr. Black, who first investigated of acres are covered with the erica, which grows to a these phenomena about the year 1757, drew the conclu- height of three or four feet. This plant is used for sion that this portion of heat became latent in the the purpose of thatching houses, making brooms, &c., water; which owes its fluid state to its latent heat. and the tops of heather supply generally the place of The heat is not destroyed or annihilated, as can easily a mattress in most Highland cottages. In countries, be proved; for if water be exposed to a degree of cold also, where the grass and clover do not begin to far below the freezing point, it will gradually part grow until late in the spring, the tops of heather, with its excess of temperature above that of surround-both in a green and dry state, supply forage for horses ing bodies, and become colder and colder till it reach and cattle. (For a scientific description of the heaththe freezing point. The temperature, however, will plant itself, the reader is referred to the article EBInot descend below 32° till the whole has become ice, CACEE.) and yet it must continue yielding up heat at the same HEAVEN, hev'-en (Sax. heafen), a term which desigrate as before. There must be, therefore, within it a nates the region or expanse surrounding the earth, and continued supply of heat, in order to keep it up to the which appears above and around us like an immense fixed point. Thus the process of thawing ice or snow arch or vault, wherein the sun and moon, the planets becomes a gradual one; and without such a provision and the constellations, apparently revolve in their or sudden and disastrous floods would occur every spring bits. Amongst the pagans the term heaven was applied in the polar and temperate zones. Artificial cold is to the abode of the celestial gods; and Aristotle and easily produced by rapid liquefaction. The mere solu- others believed the heavens to be composed of incortion of nitrate of potash alone will lower the tempera-ruptible materials, as likewise the sun, moon, and ture of water from 50° to 35°; while a mixture of snow stars; which belief was a great drawback to the spread and common salt will cause the thermometer to sink of astronomy, until it was overthrown by the reasonfrom 32° to zero. (See FREEZING MIXTURES.) When ings of Galileo. Ancient astronomers also supposed liquids pass into the solid state, their latent heat be- that there were eight heavens, seven of which were comes sensible; and by careful management water can named after the planets, and the eighth called the be cooled several degrees below its freezing point firmament (which see). The Hebrews acknowledged without congelation; the moment, however, that it is three heavens;-firstly, the air, or aerial heaven; agitated it is made to congeal, and the temperature secondly, the firmament, in which the stars were suprises to 32°. The natural processes of vaporization, posed to be placed; and lastly, the heaven of heavens, like that of liquefaction, are gradual and progressive. or third heaven, which was the seat of Jehovah. If this were not the case, the boiling of an ordinary Modern astronomy has, however, shown us that the teakettle would be an extremely dangerous operation; expanse above us is immeasurable space; and in metafor the whole volume of water would otherwise flash phorical language amongst Christians, heaven is held into steam in an instant. It is therefore hazardous to to be the abode of the Deity;-that paradise in boil those liquids which have vapours with a small spe- which the souls of the good will enjoy happiness, and cific heat. When oil of vitriol is boiled in a retort, sud- for ever dwell in the life to come. den explosions of dense vapour burst forth from time to time, and the retort is very liable to be broken by the concussion. When the pressure of the atmosphere is decreased or removed, liquids will boil at lower temperatures. Under the receiver of an air-pump, water may be made to boil at a temperature of 32°; that is to say, the pressure may be reduced till the vapour of water at that temperature, which is of no higher degree of elasticity than would suffice to support a column of mercury in the barometer of 0.20 inch, would be sufficent to remove it; but the full amount of latent heat must be absorbed in its passage into the aëriform state; and as this can be derived from no exterior source, its own free heat enters into combination. The boiling points of liquids are smaller on the summits of mountains than at their bases, in consequence of the diminished elasticity of the air. On the top of Mont Blanc, water boils at a temperature of 187°. When water is converted into vapour or steam by means of heat, it undergoes a much greater expansion of volume than any other liquid. It expands eight times as much as sulphuric ether, and nearly three times and a half as much as alcohol. The working of the steam-engine depends upon the elastic force of steam, communicated by heat and the instantaneous annihilation of that force by cold. The natural temperature of the surface of the globe is affected by so mauy causes, that it is impossible to calculate the mean heat of any country by its latitude. In the old

HEAVY SPAR, hev'-e spar, in Min, a term somewhat loosely applied to both the carbonates and sulphates of baryta and strontia. The true heavy spar of the mineralogist is sulphate of baryta. (See CELESTINE, STRONTIANITE, and WITHERITE.)

HEBREW LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE, he'-brew.— The Hebrew is one of the oldest and most remarkable of known languages, and is of especial interest to us, as being that in which the Old Testament Scriptures were originally written. It belongs to the so-called Canaanitish branch, or chief division of the Semitic family of languages, the other branches being the Aramaic and Arabian. It is matter of dispute whether the Hebrew language, as seen in the earliest books of the Old Testament, is the dialect which Abraham brought with him into Canaan, or whether it is the common tongue of the Canaanitish nations, which Abraham only adopted from them, and which was afterwards developed to greater fulness under the peculiar moral and political influences to which his posterity were exposed. There is every reason to believe, however, that Abraham, on his entrance into Canaan, found the language then prevailing among the different tribes inhabiting that country to be in, at least, dialectical affinity with his own. For a long time, down to very recently, Hebrew was universally regarded as the original language of the human race, coeval with its beginning; and that traces of it were discoverable in all subsequent tongues. The origin

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Hebrew Language and Literature

The sym

Hebrew Language and Literature and progress of the Hebrew language, until it became oldest in existence, and has claimed a high degree of the language of Scripture, in the time of Moses, it is attention on account of its connection with our religion. impossible to determine. According to some, the With the Hebrews, as with every other people, poetry Ternacular dialect of Abraham himself was Aramaic, was cultivated before prose; and in the songs of Moses and became gradually changed by the influx of Egyp- and Deborah we have the earliest specimens of poetry. fan and Arabic words, to the time of Moses. From The Jews were pre-eminently a musical people. Everythe time of Moses down to the Captivity, a period of thing calculated to excite the multitude was expressed a thousand years, notwithstanding the existence of in song; and young men and maidens emulated each some isolated, but important archaisms, as in the form other in beautiful odes at their festive gatherings. of the pronoun, &c., it underwent but little change. The art of poetry was taught in the schools, and their So far is this the case, that it has been used as an religious exercises and worship were always conducted argument against the received antiquity of the Penta- with singing and instrumental performances. Hebrew teuch. The causes, however, are to be sought in the poetry is remarkable for its wealth of imagery, not sciated and stationary character of the Hebrews only in the way of illustration, but also of metaphor, themselves, and the genius of the language, as little substituting the image for the object to be described. ensceptible of change. In even the earliest canonical There is also a great desire for the symbolic, giving to books of this period, the language appears in a state abstract ideas a concrete form, and investing even of mature development, with precision of syntactical inanimate objects with thoughts, feelings, and speech. arrangement and great regularity of formation. One Hebrew poetry is sententious, each stanza or couplet of the most remarkable features in the later language being complete in itself; so that they would admit of of this period is the difference which distinguishes the increase or diminution, or of a different arrangement, diction of poetry from that of prose. The language of without destroying the unity of the whole. The poetry simple narration and history limits itself to the forms of the Hebrews formed so much the groundwork of necessary to common purposes; the poets, on the their higher thinking, that it gave colouring to their other band, made use of unusual words and flexions, historical writings, and affected their philosophical and harmonic arrangement of thoughts, as seen both speculations. Hence arose those anthropomorphisms in the parallelism of members in a single verse, which to us are frequently so offensive, but which and in the strophie order of longer periods. The naturally connect themselves with the religious views rhetorical language of the prophets moves in a more of the Hebrews. One peculiarity of their poetry is free rhythm of thought, and in longer sentences, than parallelism, or the regularly placing beside each other the poets; but, in other respects, especially in its symmetrically-constructed propositions. palmy state, falls in very much with it. The decline metry, however, is not so much external as ideal, and corruption of the Hebrew language dates from the being the same thought repeated several times in other Babylonish captivity. From the time of the Assyrians words, or apprehended antithetically from opposite the Aramaic made great inroads upon the Hebrew; sides. All attempts to discover rhyme or metre in and after the power of the Israelites had been broken ancient Hebrew poetry have failed; but this may proby long wars and captivity, the Aramaic, owing to the bably arise from our ignorance of the ancient pronun influence of foreign authority and foreign colonists, ciation. Lyric poetry prevailed under the poet king spread rapidly. After their return from the captivity, David, who was equally successful in song and elegy. Ezra and Nehemish took care that the Hebrew, in its Strong religious feelings distinguish the spirit and subancient form, should be made more familiar to the ject of these poems. On the other hand, Solomon in people; and they both wrote in Hebrew. Among the his actions, as well as in the writings which bear his more strict Jews, the Hebrew was still retained, name, inclines evidently to a philosophic and even although within narrow limits, as appears from Daniel worldly spirit, very remote from the Jewish character. and the Maccabees. Still the progress of the Aramaic After the division of the kingdom, religion and litera was not to be repressed; and if the ancient language ture alone preserved a residue of national vigour, and was occasionally imitated, there was always a con- the prophets now became the instructors and comfortsiderable admixture of the foreign idiom. From the ers of this morally and politically degraded people. second century on, the Hebrew was known only to the Before the unfortunate period of the Babylonish caplearned, whilst the Aramaic became the vernacular of tivity, under the kings lived Jonah, Joel, Amos, Hosea, the country. Yet, after it ceased to be the language Isaiah, Micah, Obadiah, Nahum, and Habakkuk. of the people, it did not become unknown to them, During the captivity flourished Jeremiah, Ezekiel, as it was read in the Bible in the synagogues, and Daniel, Zephaniah; and after the return, Haggai, was frequently made use of by the learned among Zechariah, and Malachi. That much must have been them to communicate information to those of their lost from the treasures of Hebrew literature, which own faith. The earliest known character in the He- was very rich, particularly in the age of Solomon, is brew writing bears a very strong resemblance to the evident from passages in the Old Testament itself. Or Samaritan, both being evidently derived from the many of the works of the prophets, particularly those Phoenician. During the Babylonish captivity, they known as the minor prophets, we evidently possess only received from the Chaldees the square character in fragments. The period immediately after the return from common use; and in the time of Ezra, the old Hebrew the Babylonish captivity was of the highest importance manuscripts were copied in Chaldee characters. The to Hebrew literature. Learned men were appointed to origin of the Towel-points is usually assigned to the make collections of the ancient writings, and the sacred seventh century of our era, and arose from the efforts Scriptures were authenticated, and arranged into a made by the learned Jews to preserve the pronuncia canon. When Judea was a province under the suction of their sacred language, when it ceased to be acessors of the Macedonian hero, Greek refinement, spoken tongue. The minute and complex system science, and philosophy, spread among the Jews, and which we now possess was gradually developed, from a a number of errors crept into their religion, and led few indispensable signs, to its present elaborateness. to the formation of different sects among them; as There are three kinds of Hebrew alphabets now in use, the Pharisees, Sadducees, Essenes, &c. The Greek -the square, or Assyrian, that commonly used in language became common in Judea, and the Septuagint print; the rabbinical, or mediæval, that used chiefly in was used in the synagogues. During this period, and commentaries and notes; and the cursive, which is under the Romans, their literature made great proemployed in writing. There are no capital let- gress, from the influence of the great successive schools, ters, and the writing is from right to left. The the most famous of which was that of the great Hillel, alphabet consists of twenty letters, or consonants, president of the Sanhedrim. The philosophical book the vowels being expressed by marks above or below of Ben Sirach and the first book of the Maccabees are the letters. Five letters have a separate final form. the products of the earlier part of this period; and a The accents and marks of punctuation are very nu- number of the other apocryphal writings, whose date merons. The Hebrew is deficient in grammatical is unknown, may probably be referred to the same technicalities, especially in moods and tenses of the time. The simultaneous literary activity of the Jews verb, and, consequently, also somewhat in precision; in Africa is evinced by their numerous contributions bat in euphony, simplicity, brevity, variety of signiication, and power of poetical expression, it is hardly excelled by any tongue. The Hebrew literature is the

to Hellenistic poetry and history (Jason, Alexander, Polyhistor, Ezekiel, &c.), and especially to Platonic philosophy (Aristobulus, Philo, &c.). The Roman

Hebrews, Epistle to the

Hedeoma

conquest and the persecutions which followed na- upon him the nature of angels, but that of the seed of turally exerted a very pernicious effect upon lite- Abraham (16-18). 2. His superiority to Moses, who was rature. After the desolation of Jerusalem, various only a servant, whereas Christ is Lord (iii. 1-6); this other places in Palestine became distinguished argument applied to the believing Hebrews, who are for their schools of religious science, principally exhorted not to copy the example of their unbelievunder the lead of the presidents of the Sanhe- ing ancestors who perished in the wilderness (iii. 7drim. The work of collecting, elucidating, system- iv. 13). 3. His superiority to Aaron and all the other atizing, and further developing the decisions of the oral high priests demonstrated, he being the true priest law, was also carried on; and these were finally con- adumbrated by Melchizedek and Aaron (iv. 14-viii.). verted into a written code, or compendium of teachings 4. The typical nature of the tabernacle and its furni(Mishna), by the patriarch Jehudah the Holy, and his ture, and of the ordinances there observed (ix. 1-10). school, during the mild reign of the Antonines. To 5. The sacrifice of Christ is that true and only sacrifice this were added the partly supplementary, partly ex- by which all the Levitical sacrifices are abolished planatory works, Tosefta, Mekhilta, Safra, and Sifre. (íx. 11-x. 18). In the second part the Hebrews are These works became the basis of religious study in the exhorted-1. to faith, prayer, and constancy in the subsequent three centuries, in Palestine, as well as in gospel (x. 19-25), enforced by representations of the Babylonia, where various flourishing schools existed. danger of wilfully renouncing Christ after having reAfter new persecutions by the Christian emperors, ceived the knowledge of the truth, interspersed with which destroyed the schools (353) and the patriarchate warnings, expostulations, and encouragements (1.26(429) of Palestine, and by the Persian kings in the xi.); 2. to patience and diligence in their Christian latter part of the 5th century, which destroyed the course, from the testimony of former believers, and by schools of Babylonia, the results of these studies were giving particular attention to the example of Christ collected, though in chaotic disorder, in the two (xii. 1-13); 3. to peace and holiness, and to a jealous Gemaras or Talmuds (which see), the Palestinian and watchfulness over themselves and each other, enforced Babylonian; other extant products of the time were by the case of Esau (xii. 14-17); 4, to an obedient various ethical treatises; historical, legendary, and reception of the gospel and a reverential worship of cosmogonal writings; stories, prayers, &c. The Chal- God, from the superior excellency of the Christian disdee, often with an admixture of Hebrew, was now pensation, and the proportionably greater guilt and generally used in literary works, while the people used danger of neglecting it (xii. 18-29); 5. to brotherly the various languages of the countries in which they love, hospitality, and compassion, charity, contentlived. Under Mohammedan rule, particularly under ment, and the love of God (xiii. 1-3); 6. to recollect the later caliphs, who favoured science, the Jews en- the faith and examples of their deceased pastors (4-8); joyed comparatively mild treatment, and their schools 7. to watchfulness against false doctrines in regard to revived, particularly in Babylonia. Numerous works, the sacrifice of Christ (9-12); 8.[to willingness to bear historical and ethical, were composed; the critical reproach for him, and thanksgiving to God (xiii. 13notes of the Masora, and the Targum of Jerusalem 15); 9. to subjection to their pastors and prayer for elaborated; talmudical compendiums written; and the apostle. The authorship of this epistle has been medical, astronomical, and linguistic studies pursued. much disputed in early, as well as in recent times, Scientific and literary pursuits also flourished among though the weight of evidence, both external and interthe Jews in Africa, who, with slight interruptions, en-nal, greatly preponderates in favour of St. Paul. It joyed peace under the Saracenic princes. The Arabic has also been ascribed to Apollos, Silas, Clement, was the language generally used by scholars. In the Luke, Barnabas, &c. It was probably written about feudal states of Europe, the Jews generally enjoyed A.D. 62 or 63. The language in which it was originally but few privileges, and were frequently subjected to written; the Jews to whom it was addressed; whether the most cruel persecutions. In Spain, however, under it really was an epistle addressed to a particular comthe Moorish princes, they enjoyed civil rights, and munity, or only a discourse or dissertation intended nearly to the same extent under the Christian kings; for general readers, have all been matters of dispute. and here they made great progress in literature and -Ref. Horne's Introduction to the Holy Scriptures. science. The most distinguished man of this time was Moses Maimonides, renowned as a philosopher, as well as a writer on law. Since that time the Jews have advanced with the surrounding nations, and have produced a number of distinguished men in almost every department of literature and science.-Ref. Kitto's Biblical Cyclopædia; Herzog's Theological En cyclopædia; the New American Cyclopædia; Brockhaus's Conversations Lexikon, and the numerous works therein referred to.

HRCATOMB, hek'-a-toomb (Gr. hekatombe, from heka. ton, a hundred; bous, an ox), in Grecian Antiq., a sumptuons or magnificent sacrifice; originally consisting of the sacrifice of a hundred beasts of the same kind, at a hundred altars, by a hundred priests or sacrificers. Pythagoras is said to have sacrificed a hecatomb of a hundred oxen to the muses, in joy and gratitude for his having discovered the demonstration of the 47th proposition of the first book of Euclid. Although a true hecatomb consisted of a hundred oxen, yet, in the time of Homer, the word had lost its real etymological meaning: it merely meant a great public sacrifice. Thus, in the Iliad, an allusion is made to a hecatomb of twelve oxen; to another of oxen and rams; and to another of fifty.

HEBREWS, EPISTLE TO THE.-The name of one of the canonical books of the New Testament addressed to converted Jews, and designed to dissuade them from relapsing into Judaism, and to fortify them in the Christian faith. It contrasts the grandeur, efficiency, and perpetuity of the new covenant economy with the HECTIC FEVER, hek'-tik (Gr. hektikos, habitual), in earthliness, feebleness, and temporary nature of the Med., is employed to denote a protracted or habitual Mosaic; and exhibits the divine character and offices fever, and is generally applied to that intermittent of the Redeemer, and his infinite superiority to Moses fever which usually occurs in the latter stages of conand the Aaronic priesthood. The reasonings are in- sumption. It is commonly characterized by morning terspersed with numerous solemn and affectionate and evening paroxysms, with intermediate remissions; warnings and exhortations, addressed to different but the evening paroxysm is usually the most marked. descriptions of persons. It consists of three parts: Towards evening, as the paroxysm comes on, the list1. demonstrates the deity of Christ by the explicit de-less, languid manner which prevailed during the day clarations of Scripture (i.-x. 18); 2. the application becomes changed, the eyes brighten, the conversation of the preceding arguments and proofs (x.19-xiii. becomes animated, and the cheeks assume a beautiful 19); and 3. the conclusion, containing a prayer for flush. This may continue for five or six hours, when the Hebrews and apostolic salutations (xiii. 20-25). the manner and appearance of the patient become In the first part, the proposition is that Christ is entirely changed, the hectic flush passes away, and true God (i. 1-3), and the proofs are: 1. his supe-a chill spreads over the entire frame, followed by a riority to angels, by whom he is worshipped as their profuse perspiration, which leaves the patient utterly Creator and Lord (i. 4-14), therefore we ought to prostrate. Day after day the sad story is repeated, give heed to him (ii. 1-4); the superiority over the patient is gradually reduced in body and strength, angels asserted, notwithstanding his temporary hu- and at length dies exhausted. (See CONSUMPTION.) miliation, in our nature (5-9); without which he HEDEOMA, he-de-o'-mă (Gr. edus, sweet), in Bot., could not have accomplished the work of man's re-a gen, of the nat. ord. Labiata. The species H. puledemption (10-15); for which purpose he took not gioides, commonly known as American pennyroyal, is

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