Hat Manufacture duction of the hat into England is not exactly known, but it is mentioned by some of the early chroniclers and bistorians, In the reign of Queen Elizabeth, Stebbe thus writes of the hats of the period :-"Sometimes," says he, "they use them sharpe on the crowne, peaking up like the speare or shafte of a steeple, standing a quarter of a yarde above the crowne of the head. Some others are flat and broade on the crowne, Eke the battlements of a house. Another sorte have round crownes, sometimes with one kind of band, sometimes with another: now black, now white; now rasset, now red; now green, now yellow; now this, now that: never content with one colour or fashion two days to an end." Samuel Pepys, in his Diary, dated June 27th, 1600, states, "This day Mr. Holden sent me a beaver, which cost me £4. 58." About the beginning of the 18th century, the crowns of hats were mostly round, and had very broad brims, much resembling the Quaker hats which are still in use. In 1704, the regular three-cocked hat came into use, and hell the sovereignty of head-coverings until about 1760, when a flat-topped, full-brimmed hat usurped its place. About thirty-five years later, the cylindrical hat, now in general use, esme in vogue, and at the beginning of the 19th century was generally adopted, to the extinction of the cocked hat. The only ceremonial or professional hat now in use is that adopted by bishops and other dignitaries of the English church; and this is a round hat made of beaver, with a very broad brim looped up at the sides and back, so as to resemble slightly a shovel in appearance; whence it is termed a "ahovel bat." Hats for men are mostly constructed of the fur of the beaver, but are also made of felt, straw, and grass, although those of the latter materials come under the denomination of "tourist" hats. Those for women are made of braid, cloth, straw, and grass, and many other fancy materials. The mode in which hats are constructed, and the various processes they go through, will be found given under the article HAT MANUFACTURE (see next art.). Hatching circular piece of pasteboard. The last process to which it is subjected is that of brushing and ironing the fur until all the fibres lie in the same direction; after which it is lined, and the edge of the brim bound. Felt hats, or "wideawakes," whether soft or stiff, are made chiefly of wool, and a similar process is gone through in their manufacture, in which machinery and moulds are sometimes employed. In the manufacture of silk hats, the plush which forms the external covering is sewn together, and drawn over the stiffened body, which is made of coarse canvas, chip, horse-hair, thin sheets of cork, and a variety of substances. Before the plush is put on, the body is covered with varnish, which melts on the application of a heated iron, and causes the silk covering to adhere closely to the foundation. The edges of the plush that covers the sides of the hat are not sewn together, but fastened to the body with the varnish, the nap being carefully brought over the line in which the edges are joined, in order to hide it. In some hats contrivances are introduced, both in the crown and brim, for the purpose of securing ventilation, as the want of free circulation of the air in the interior of the hat, when placed on the head, is said to injure the roots of the hair and cause baldness. In the gibus hat, the sides are made of merino, or some similar material, and the crown and brim, which are stiff, as in an ordinary hat, are connected by a set of springs, so that the hat can be flattened or expanded at pleasure. Nothing can be said in favour of the shape of the hat that custom compels the majority of Englishmen to wear in public; it is far from becoming in appearance, and most uncomfortable when worn for any length of time, on account of the pressure that it exerts on the forehead. The only way in which some slight alleviation of the discomfort occasioned by wearing such a covering for the head can be obtained, is by holding the interior of the hat towards the fire until the stiffening varnish is melted to a certain extent, and the body softened. It should then be pressed firmly on the head, and allowed to remain there until the varnish has again grown cold, by which its shape is brought more in accordance with the formation of the skull of the wearer, and the hat is rendered a little more bearable than it was before the operation that has been mentioned. HAT-MONEY, or PRIMAGE, is a small duty paid to the captain and mariners of a vessel, over and above the freight, for their care and trouble. The amount is regulated by the custom of each particular place. HAT MANUFACTURE.-The principal materials of which hats are manufactured are-fur, wool, silk, and straw. Hats made of silk plush, drawn over a coarse stiffened textile fabric as a foundation, are those that are most generally used in the present day, with hats of felted wool and fur, without any nap, that are either soft and yielding, or brought into the asual hat shape by being blocked and stiffened with a composition prepared for the purpose. Straw hats are made of lengths of straw-plait sewn together in the HATCHING, hatsh'-ing (Ger, hecken, to hatch), the desired shape. Hats with a nap composed of the fur incubation or lying down of an animal upon her own or of the beaver are now but little worn; as the silk hat, another's eggs, and so communicating to them heat. although of the same objectionable shape, and exerting By this means she maintains them at her own tempe even greater pressure on the forehead, is cheaper and rature, a condition essential to their development. far neater in appearance. The body of the beaver hat The development of the foetus takes place in many aniis formed of lamb's-wool and rabbit's far, that are first mals after the exclusion of the egg, and while it is kept bowed or mixed together, and then felted by damping in external contact with the parent's body, as in the the materials and working them together with the case of the crab and lobster tribes, beneath the caudal hands. By these means the fur and wool are blended plates; or agglutinated to the surface of the abdomen, together in a thick close mass resembling a conical as in certain species of pipe-fish; or concealed in cutaeap. This is reduced in size, and thickened by work-neous marsupial cavities, as in other species of the ing it with the hands on the edge of a boiler containing Syngnatus and the Hippocampus: in the case of those sulphuric acid, beer-grounds, and water, with which cold-blooded animals, however, the protection of the mixture the felt is repeatedly moistened, the manipu- ova seems to be the object, and not communication of lation being continued until the materials have united together as closely as they possibly can, and the felt will admit of no further contraction in size. After this the body is stiffened with a composition made of resinous substances, and then submitted to the action of heat, that the felt may be thoroughly penetrated and ebarged with the varnish that has been applied to . To form the glossy nap of the hat, a little beaver far, which has been shorn from the skin by a machine, is partially felted together and spread over the surface of the body, the two substances being united by the felting process, which causes the ends of the beaver fur to enter and adhere to the foundation of fur and lamb'swool. Some beaver for is also felted round the edge of the interior of the cone, in order to form the under part of the brim. The hat is then fashioned into shape by the hand, on a wooden block; after which the nap is combed, and the fibres are cut to a uniform length. After the bat has been boiled for some time in a dye of Igwood, sulphate of iron, gall-nuts, and water, it is dried, and the crown stiffened by the insertion of a warmth. True hatching, or incubation, only takes place among the oviparous warm-blooded animals; namely, birds. A due degree of warmth is absolutely necessary in hatching. The mean temperature required is 100° Fahr.; it may vary from 95° to 105, and towards the close of the process may be suspended for one or two hours, or even for a longer period, according to the amount of extraneous heat which the exposed eggs receive. The power which birds possess of communicating the proper amount of heat to their eggs depends upon a peculiar plexus of vessels distributed over the skin of the abdomen, which in most birds is connected with a derivation of blood from the internal organs of generation. The uncontrollable propensity which birds have to incubate arises from the vascular, hot, and sensitive condition of the abdomen. The eggs of the bird present several peculiarities in relation to the circumstances under which the foetus is to be developed. By their oval form they present a large surface to the source of heat, while the hard calcareous nature and arched form of the shell preserve them from injury HAWFINCH. (See GROSBEAK.) HAWK, hawk (Sax. hafoc), a term applied in Orn. to the Accipitrine, a sub-family of the Falconida. The birds of this family are distinguished by the shortness. of their wings, which extend no further than two-thirds the length of their tail. The fourth quill-feather is the longest, the first, second, and third gradually exceeding each other in length. The beak is short, and hooked from the base; and the upper mandible, though not furnished with distinct teeth, like the true falcons, has the festoon, or prominence, that generally supplies its place, more strong and angular than is usual among these tribes. Hawks are generally natives of cold climates; they skim the ground with a low and rapid flight, sometimes seizing their prey upon the wing, and sometimes swooping upon it from above. The common sparrow-hawk may be taken as a type of the family. It is to be found in nearly every part of from the incumbent pressure of the parent bird. The HATCHWAY, or HATCH, hatsh'-way (Ang.-Sax.).Hatches are oblong or square openings in the decks of a ship, forming the communications between one deck and another. There are usually three; viz., the main hatchway, situated just before the mainmast, which is the largest; the fore hatchway, situated a little abaft the foremast; and the after hatchway, placed between the main and mizen masts. The fore and after hatches, being used principally for communication, are fitted with ladders. In merchant vessels there are frequently other hatchways. When not in use, the hatchways are covered with wooden gratings, and during stormy weather with tarpauling, to prevent the water getting below. HATTI SHERIF, or HATTI HUMAYUN, hat'-te sherif, hoo-ma'-yoon (Turkish, exalted, or august writing), is the name given by the Turks to every rescript of the sultan. It is in the Turkish language, and written in the Arabian court-hand,-Divâni. Above the text, as a sign of its authenticity, stands the ornamental nameflourish of the sultan, commonly black, sometimes red, and in some cases golden. This flourish is called Tugra, or Rischanisherif, i. e. exalted sign, and the official who superscribes it is called Rischandschi, i. e. signer. The most celebrated hatti sherif of recent times is that of Gulhana (Nov. 3, 1839), guaranteeing life and property to all subjects of the empire, without distinction of creeds. This was confirmed by a new hatti sherif (Feb. 18, 1856), proclaiming equality of all creeds and nationalities, making non-Mohammedans admissible to public office, and permitting foreigners to hold landed property. A hatti sherif is irrevocable. HAUTBOY, or OBOE, o'-boy (Fr.), a musical wind instrument of the reed kind, which at a very early date took its place as one of the essential instruments of the orchestra. It consists of a tube, made of box, ebony, or cocoa-wood, about twenty-one inches long, narrow at the top but gradually widening towards the lower end or bell, and divided into three pieces or joints. In the upper and middle ends are holes, by stopping or opening which with the fingers the natural scale is formed, the intermediate semitones being produced by means of the keys, of which some hautboys have but two, while others have fifteen, and sometimes more: they are seldom made now with less than fifteen keys. Its range of available notes extends from B to G in alt. The tone of the hautboy is rich and sweet, and is particularly adapted to piano and dolce passages. The best player on this instrument at the present time is Mr. Grattan Cooke. This term is also given by organ-builders to a reed stop similar in shape to the real hautboy, the sound of which it is intended to imitate. HAVEN. (See HARBOUR.) HAVILDAR, hav-il-dar', is the highest rank to which a non-commissioned officer can ascend in the native regiments of India and Ceylon; and consequently the rank is somewhat analogous to that of a sergeant major in the English army. of of SPARROW-HAWK. is nearly fifteen inches in length, and the male about It HAWKERS, PEDLARS, and PETTY CHAPMEN, hawk'-erz (Ang.-Sax.), are persons travelling from town to town, selling goods and merchandise. Act 50 Geo. III. c. 41, repealed the previous acts on this subject, and placed the duties of hawkers and pedlars under the manage ment of the commissioners of hackney coaches. imposed a duty of £4 per annum on every such trading person going from town to town, or to other men's houses, and travelling either on foot or with horse, &c.; and the sum of £4 yearly additional for every horse, ass, mule, or other beast, bearing or drawing burden, he or she shall so travel with. Before obtaining license, they are required to produce a certificate, signed by some clergyman, or by two respectable inhabitants, attesting that they are of good character and reputation. Every such person is required to have legibly written, painted, or printed in Hawking Hawking large Roman capitals, on every pack, box, trunk, cart, waggon, &c., and likewise upon every handbill or advertisement which he may give out, the words "licensed hawker." A licensed hawker is not allowed to open a room or shop, and expose for sale any goods or mer-Heptarchy to the days of Charles II., hawking was a chandise by retail, in any town or parish where he is not a householder, or which is not his usual place of abode, in order to sell, by himself, or by any auctioneer, de., by outery, as in a sale by auction, or other mode whereby the best or highest bidder is, or shall be deemed to be, the purchaser. A licensed hawker, however, selling in such premises by retail, does not cend against this clause, which only applies to selling by outery, &c., or by some mode of sale at auction. A licensed auctioneer, going from town to town, and sending goods by public waggons, and selling the same on commission by retail or by auction, at the different towns, is a trading person within the meaning of the act, and must take out a hawker's license. The act does not extend to hinder any person from selling any goods in any public market, mart, or fair, nor to prohibit any person or persons from selling any printed papers licensed by authority, or any fish, fruit, or victuals; nor the real workers or makers of any goods, wares, or manufactures of Great Britain, or their children, apprentices, or known agents or servants, usually residing with such real workers or makers only, from carrying abroad and exposing to sale, and selling by retail or otherwise, any of said goods, wares, or manufactures of their own making, in any mart, market, or fair, in any city, borough, or market-town; nor any tinkers, coopers, glaziers, &c., usually trading in mending kettles, tubs, Se., from going about and carrying with them proper materials for mending the same. Act 52 Geo. III. e. 108, declares that no wholesale trader in lace, woollen, linen, silk, or any of the goods, wares, or manufactures of Great Britain, and selling the same by wholesale, either by himself or his servants or agents, shall be deemed a hawker within the meaning of the above act. Act 1 & 2 Will. IV. c. 22, places the collection of duties paid by hawkers, &c., under the care and management of the commissioners of stamps for the time being. Act 22 & 23 Vict. c. 36, empowers justices, in convicting for offences under the Hawkers Act, to mitigate the penalties there prescribed to not less than one-fourth part over and above the necessary costs of proceedings; and no hawker's license required to be taken out by any worker or maker to sell his goods anywhere, either by himself, child, agent, or apprentice. By 23 & 24 Vict. c. 111, hawkers' liçenses, granted either in England or Scotland, are good for zay part of Great Britain; and the commissioners of inland revenue may remit penalties incurred by unlicensed hawkers, in whole or in part, although portions of these may be payable to other parties than the Crown. By 24 & 25 Vict. c. 21, hawkers having the proper excise license are authorized to sell sugar and tea; persons exposing goods for sale at private houses to be deemed hawkers, with the exceptions already specified. Licenses may also be granted by any inland revenue officer, on certificate by a justice of the peace or a police inspector. It is also provided, that a hawker, pedlar, or petty chapman, if he shall travel on foot without any horse or other beast, and carry his goods to and sell them at other men's houses, and not at any house, shop, room, booth, stall, or other place, in any town to which he may travel, may obtain a license, for a period not exceeding six months, at £1; exceeding six months, £2. If he shall travel with an ass, male, or horse not exceeding thirteen hands in beight (four inches to the hand), where the license shall be for a period not exceeding six months, £2; exceeding six months, £4. although scarcely known to the Romans in the days of Vespasian, was practised with enthusiasm by the ancient Britons, who maintained a considerable number of birds for the sport. In after-times, from the favourite amusement of the English. A person of rank scarcely stirred out of doors without his hawk on his hand; and in old paintings and seals this is the criterion of nobility. In the Bayeux tapestry, Harold, when setting out on a most important embassy to Normandy, is represented with a bird on his hand and a dog under his arm. In olden times this diversion was the favourite amusement of all ranks of men; and while it was the privilege of the poor, was the pride of the rich. The expenses of the sport were sometimes very great. Sir Thomas Monson, in the reign of James I., is said to have given £1,000 for a cast of hawks. The laws with regard to the protection of the birds were also very rigorous. Edward III. made it felony to steal a hawk; and to take its eggs was, even in a person's own ground, punishable with imprisonment for a year and a day, besides a fine at the king's pleasure. With these slight restrictions, hawking remained a favourite amusement in merry England till the reign of Queen Elizabeth, when the imprisonment was reduced to three months; but the offender had to find security for his good behaviour for seven years, or lie in prison till he did so. The sport of hawking was 80 universally popular in Britain at that period, that a certain quality of hawk was apportioned to every one, according to his station in life. Thus the eagle or vulture was given to the emperor, the ger-falcon to the king, the falcon gentle, or the tercel gentle, to the prince, the rock-falcon to the duke, the peregrine falcon to the earl, the bastard falcon to the baron, the sacre to the knight, the harrier and the lammaret to the esquire, the merlin to the lady, the hobby to the young man, the gos-hawk to the yeoman, the tercel to the poor man, the sparrow-hawk to the priest, the musket to the holy-water clerk, and the kestrel to the knave or servant. The birds most generally used in hawking were the peregrine falcon and the ger-falcon. When under a year old, hawks were called red hawks, on account of their plumage being dusky red in colour. When over a year old, the hawk was called a haggard. Several of the birds employed for the sport in this country are still to be found in Scotland and Wales. The peregrine falcon inhabits the rocks of Caernarvonshire; and the same species, with the ger-falcon, the gentil, and the gos-hawk, are found in Scotland, and the lanner in Ireland. In the old time, the Norwegian hawks were held in high esteem in England, and were not considered unbefitting bribes for the HAWKING, hawk'-ing (Sax. hafoc, a hawk), the art of king. It is recorded that Jeoffrey Fitzpierre gave training and flying hawks, in order to take other birds. King John two good Norway hawks, in order to proThe practice of teaching one bird to fly at and catch cure for his friend the right of exporting a hundredanother is frequently called falconry, and is of high weight of cheese. In some cases hawks were made antiquity. Amongst the Asiatics the sport seems to the tenures by which several of the nobility held have been practised from the earliest period; and in their estates from the crown. Sir John Stanley and the time of Ctesias, foxes and hares were hunted in his heirs held a grant of the Isle of Man from Henry India by means of rapacious birds. It is not certain, IV., by paying two falcons to the reigning sovereign bat very probable, that the ancient Greeks used hawks on the day of coronation. Although hawking, as an and other birds of prey in hunting and fowling. From exercise, has now gone nearly out of use, several of the East the art gradually spread over Europe, and, the terms employed still hold their place in the lan DRESSED HAWK. Hawse guage. Every part of a hawk has its distinct name. The legs, from the thigh to the foot, are called arms; the toes, the petty singles; the claws, the pounces; the wings, the sails. The crop is called the gorge; the upper part of the bill, the beak, the lower part, the clap; the yellow part between the beak and eyes, the cere, and the small holes in it, the nares. The furniture, the leathers, with bells fastened on the legs, are called bewits; the leathern thong by which the hawk is held is called the leash; and the little straps fastening them to the legs, the jesses. A head-covering, in order to keep the bird in the dark, is called a hood; and to draw the strings, so that the hood may be in readiness to be pulled off, is called unstriking the hood. The lure is a figure or resemblance of a fowl made of leather and feathers; and the resting-place when the hawk is off the falconer's hand, the perch. Many of the particular actions of the hawk are also described by distinct terms. When the bird flutters on the hand or perch, it is said to bate; when standing too near, hawks fight with each other, it is called crabbing; when the young ones quiver in obedience to the elder, it is called cowring. The seizure of its prey by a hawk is called binding; when it pulls off the feathers, it is said to plume; when it forsakes the proper game, and flies at magpies, crows, &c., it is called check. The fowl or game flown at is called the quarry, and the dead body of a fowl killed by the hawk is called the pelt. The making of a hawk tame and gentle is called reclaim ing; the bringing one to endure company, manning; and a hawk well enough trained to set an example to a young one is called a make-hawk. George, earl of Orford, tried to revive hawking in the latter part of the 18th century; and, in Yorkshire, Colonel Thompson had a hawking establishment at a later period. As a general diversion, however, in this country, the sport has entirely gone out, although now and then occasional attempts have been made to revive it. In Sir Walter Scott's novels, there are some very graphic and interesting descriptions of this national sport. A list of the hawks in use at the time of Charles I. will be found in Walton's Complete Angler (see also The Book of St. Albans, by Juliana Berners, abbess of Sopwell; La Fauconnerie, by Charles d'Esperon; and Latham's Falconry). HAWSE, hawze (Ang.-Sax.), a term applied to the situation of the cables before a ship's stem, when she is moored with two anchors, one on the starboard and the other on the port-bow. When these cables verge from each other, the hawse is said to be clear; when crossed by the ship's swinging half-round, the hawse is said to be crossed; another cross makes what is termed an elbow, and then a round-turn:-in both these latter cases, the ship is said to have foul hawse. The process by which the cables are disengaged from these entanglements is called clearing hause. Freshening hawse, means veering out more cable, in order to render the friction of the fouled cables more evenly distributed. Athwart hawse means crossing the bows of a ship at anchor. HAWSE-HOLES, the holes in the bows of a ship through which the cables pass that are attached to the anchors. HAWSER, haw-zer (Ang.-Sax.), a large cable, of intermediate size between the cable and tow-line of the ship to which it belongs: it is used for various purposes; as warping out of dock, or towing, &c. HAWTHORN. (See CRATEGUS.) HAY, HAYMAKING, hay (Sax. hey, hiy), grass cut and dried for fodder; grass prepared for preservation. Haymaking is the operation of cutting down, drying, and otherwise preparing the forage-grasses and other forage plants. When the plants are in full flower, as they are now supposed to contain the maximum amount of nutritious juices diffused throughout their system, they are mown down with a scythe. Fine, dry weather, when the sun prevails, is generally chosen for the time during which haymaking is to be prosecuted, and the mown material is spread out and tossed over several times for the purpose of exposing it to the sun's rays, even on the first day it is cut. In the evening it is collected into small heaps, which are again spread out to dry the next morning, as on the previous day. If the weather has been very warm and dry, and the sun very powerful, these heaps are carted Health away and stacked on the third day; but if the weather has been damp, they are again spread out, as previously, until four days have elapsed from the day the grass was cut. The grand object in making hay is to preserve all the colour and natural juices of the grass, &c., which is done by repeatedly turning it over, so as never to expose the same surface for any length of time to the influence of the sun. In stacking hay, these natural qualities are preserved; and besides, a slight fermentation is brought on, which renders the fibres more tender, and dissolves a part of the parenchymous matter into sugar, which renders the hay more palatable to horses. HAYBOTE, hai'-bote (Sax.), in Law, is a liberty to take thorns and other wood to make and repair hedges, gates, fences, &c., either by a tenant for life or years. It is said to include also wood for the making of rakes and forks used in the making of hay. HAYWARD, hai'-ward (Sax.), is applied to the keeper of a common herd of cattle of a town, and part of whose duty is to see that they neither break nor crop the hedges of inclosed grounds. HAZEL. (See CORYLUS.) HEAD. (See BRAIN, ANATOMY.) HEADACHE,hed'-aik (Sax. heufod, head; ace, ache), or pain in the head, is a complaint of very common occurrence, and may result from so many different causes, that it is impossible to lay down many special directions regarding it. There are few diseases with which it does not occur symptomatically, and it is a prominent symptom in all fevers and inflammations, and in many nervous complaints. It occurs idiopathically, either from weakness or exhaustion of the nerve-power of the brain, or from a disordered state of the digestive apparatus. Sometimes it is an obtuse pain extending over the whole head, with a sense of heaviness, with a general torpitude of the sensorial power, disqualifying the person for continued mental effort. The sight is often dim, the hearing dull, and the memory defective. This arises from some weakness or exhaustion of the brain, and is produced by irregular circulation of blood in the head, by great mental exertion, or by violent mental passions. When it arises from an overloaded condition of the blood-vessels of the brain, there is usually a bloated countenance, full red eye, and a dull inanimate expression. Cold applications to the head, leaches to the temples, or cupping on the back of the neck, with spare diet and active aperients, are the proper means to be adopted in this case. Where it proceeds from nervous exhaustion or nervous irritability, soothing and strengthening measures are to be adopted, and stimulants to be as much as possible avoided. Tonics ought to be employed, and such other means, as out-door exercise, sea-bathing, &c., as tend to strengthen and invigorate the system. Bilious headache, or such as arises from a disordered state of the digestive organs, usually affects one side of the head only, or but a portion of it, most commonly over one eye, and increasing to an acute and often throbbing pain. It is commonly accompanied with a feeling of sickness, often leading to vomiting, and producing extreme languor and depression of spirits. This kind of headache seldom lasts more than a few hours at a time, and may generally be removed by taking a blue bill at bed-time, with a colocynth pill, or other aperient, in the morning. In rheumatic headache, which is commonly caused by exposure to cold, the pain is of a remittent, shifting nature, shooting from point to point, and is felt most at night, when the patient is warm in bed. (See RHEUMATISM.) HEADBOROUGH. (See BOROUGH.) HEALTH, helth (Ang.-Sax.), is that condition of the living body in which all the vital, natural, and animal functions are performed easily and perfectly, and unattended with pain. It consists in a natural and proper condition and proportion in the functions and structures of the several parts of which the body is composed. From physiology we learn that there are certain relations of these functions and structures to each other, and to external agents, which are most conducive to their well-being and permanency, which constitute the condition of health. States which are deviations from the due balance between the several properties or parts of the animal frame constitute disease. The most perfect state of health is generally Health, Bill of HEALTH, BILL OF. (See BILL OF HEALTH.) HEALTH, PUBLIC. (See SANITARY SCIENCE.) HEARING. (See EAR, DEAFNESS.) HEARSAY EVIDENCE, hear-say (Ang.-Sax.), in Law, is the name given to that kind of evidence in which a witress speaks not from his own knowledge, but from what he heard another person say. such evidence is inadmissible in a court of law, as the As a general rule, person by whom the statement was first made cannot be sworn, neither can he be cross-examined; and the fall truth or entire meaning of the statement may not have been carried away. But there are some cases in which such evidence is received; as in proof of any general customs, or matters of common tradition or repate; or an secount of what deceased persons have said in their lifetime. connected with a certain conformation and structure exterior fibres of the heart are longitudinal, the middle Heart, Diseases of the of the bodily organs, and well marked by certain ex-transverse, and the interior oblique. The contraction) teral signs and figures, a well-proportioned body, of the heart is termed systole; it's dilatation, diastole. calm and regular circulation of the blood, free and full respiration, easy digestion, &c. There are, how-portant part which it plays in the animal economy, is HEART, DISEASES OF THE.-The heart, from the imever, few persons who can be said to enjoy perfect subject to various, serious, and often fatal diseases. health; and hence, in ordinary language, when we speak Like the other viscera, it is removed from the eye, so of health, we imply merely a freedom from actual that little knowledge of its condition can be obtained disease. In this sense, the standard of health is not by inspection; and hence we must have recourse to the same in every individual, that being health in some other means. The ear is the principal means of obwhich would be disease in another. The healthy pulse taining a knowledge of the state of the heart, and by in adults averages from 70 to 80 per minute, yet there auscultation and percussion (which see), we are enabled are some in whom 90 or 100 is a healthy pulse. Mus-to detect the existence of various diseases. The heart cular strength and activity, nervous sensibility, and gives out two sounds, known as the first and second, the sensorial powers, vary exceedingly in different which are distinguished from each other. The first individuals, yet all within the limits of health. There sound is longer than the second, and the interval beis scarcely any earthly blessing men hold so lightly as tween the first and second sounds is shorter than that health, and yet there is none they so deeply deplore between the second and first. They have been comthe loss of when deprived of it. In order to preserve pared to the two syllables lupp, dupp. Any manifest health, it is necessary to be temperate in food, exer- alteration in these sounds is indicative of the existcise, and sleep, and to pay strict attention to bodily ence of disease. They may be high or low, clear or cleanliness, abstaining from spirituous liquors and the dull, muffled, rough, intermittent, &c. Murmurs or over-indulgence of sensual gratifications. regurgitant sounds may arise from disease of the valves. The power of distinguishing between the normal and abnormal sounds of the heart, and of the lengthened experience. causes producing the latter, can only be obtained by usually divided into two classes,-1. functional or nervous, and 2. structural or organic. Chief among the Diseases of the beart are angina pectoris (which see). They are chiefly to be former are palpitations, syncope, or fainting, and met with in persons of a naturally nervous temperament, more especially women suffering from hysteria, or other like complaints, and may be induced by great mental excitement. should be paid to the general health, and by means of tonics, sea-bathing, and gentle open-air exercise, the In such cases, great attention system is to be strengthened. Violent exertion, and HEART, hart (Sax. heort, Lat. cor), in Anat., the Among the principal organic diseases to which the strong mental excitement, are particularly to be avoided. great central organ of the circulation of the blood, is a heart is subject, are pericarditis, carditis, endocarLoLow muscular organ in the form of an irregular ditis, atrophy, hypertrophy, dilatation, and valvular cone, and placed obliquely in the lower or front part of disease. Pericarditis, or inflammation of the perithe thorax, inclined most to the left side. The base is cardium, may be induced by exposure to damp or cold, directed towards the spine, and corresponds with the or by other causes, which give rise to inflammation in fourth and fifth dorsal vertebræ, while the apex other parts. It is characterized by great tenderness points between the cartilages of the fifth and sixth ribs over the region of the heart, amounting, when pressed, on the left side. It rests upon the diaphragm, having to sharp cutting pains, which prevent him from lying the lower surface somewhat flattened. It is inclosed upon the left side. If, as is usually the case, the in a membranous bag, called the pericardium, but pleura is involved, there will be acute pain on coughkosely, so as to allow free motion. The heart may being or drawing a deep breath. Sometimes the attack conndered as double, the right side being pulmonary, is not so severe, and only a slight pain is felt, or only and serving to transmit blood only to the lungs; the a sense of heaviness and oppression. Generally the other systemic, forcing the blood into all parts of the action of the heart is increased, sometimes so much so system. It contains four cavities,-two at the base, as to constitute palpitation. Frequently there is a termed auriclea, and two at the apex, named ventricles. considerable quantity of fluid effused into the cavity of The right auricle has four apertures,-one from the the pericardium, which is sometimes externally visible superior veas cars, by which the blood is returned by the bulging out over that part. It is a frequent from the upper portion of the system; one from the attendant of acute rheumatism (which see). Its mode inferior vena cava, returning the blood from the lower of treatment depends very much upon the particular parts of the system; one from the coronary vein, by circumstances of each case. which the blood is returned from the heart itself; and rapid and violent, bleeding may be of great service; in one into the right ventricle. The blood passes from other cases tonics, and in some cases stimulants, are Where the disease is the right suricle into the right ventricle, the entrance employed. Carditis, or inflammation of the heart to which is guarded by a fold of the lining membrane, itself, sometimes occurs, but it is usually accompanied forming a valve, called the tricuspid, from its present- with inflammation of the pericardium: the symptoms ing three points. The blood is sent from the right in both cases are the same, and the treatment will conTentricle into the pulmonary artery, by means of which sequently be similar in both. The like remarks also it is conveyed to the lungs. The entrance to the pul- apply, in great measure, to endocarditis, or inflammamonary artery is guarded by three semilunar valves, tion of the interior lining membrane of the heart, which prevent the blood from again flowing back into which is usually accompanied by one or both of the the ventricle. The blood is returned from the lungs above. In this case there is more or less of fever and to the heart by the pulmonary veins, which convey it anxiety, and a peculiar sound of the heart is heard into the left auricle. From this it is sent into the left upon auscultation. Atrophy, or a wasting of the heart's ventricle, the entrance into which is guarded by the substance, arises from a deficiency in the supply of mitral, or bienspad valve, consisting of two pieces, of nutritive matter. It is usually accompanied by general which the right one is much larger than the other. emaciation, and will be pretty sure to terminate in The left ventricle has its walls much thicker than the death. When the heart is examined after death, its right, and forces the blood into the aorta, for distribu- tissues are found to have undergone a change, and, tion over the entire system. At the commencement of instead of a striped, to present a homogeneous appearthe aorta, there are three sigmoid or semilunar valves, ance. in the pulmonary artery, for preventing the blood treatment is to strengthen the system by tonics, wholefrom returning. The heart of a foetus differs from that some and nutritious diet, open-air exercise, sea-bathThis is called "fatty degeneration." The of an adult, in having a foramen ovale, through which ing, and the like. Hypertrophy, on the other hand, is the blood passes from the right auricle to the left. The the result of an excess of nutrition, the nutritive pro 939 |