Greek Language and Literature

Greek Language and Literature wards meditation, investigation, and labour, for the down to the present time. The historical works of attainment of a desired end than before. Among those Xenophon (born 447 B.C.), though not equal to that of who were distinguished in the field of lyric poetry, or Thucydides in vigour of colouring and depth of reflecin the improvement of music, history furnishes us with tion, are yet adorned with every grace of narrative and the names of Archilochus of Paros, inventor of the description. His other works are valuable for the iambus; Tyrtæus of Miletus, author of war songs; light they throw on the spirit of Greek institutions Calumachus of Ephesus, inventor of the elegiac mea- and the peculiarities of Greek life. Of the works of sure; Aleman the Lydian; Arion of Methymns, who Ctesias, Philistus, Theopompus, and Ephorus, which perfected the dithyrambus; Terpander of Antissa, belong to a period somewhat earlier, none have come inventor of the barbitos (a kind of lyre); the tender down to us entire. In philosophy, to which the teachings Sappho of Mitylene; her countryman Alexus; Erinna, of Socrates (born 468 B.c.) gave a great impulse, we have the contemporary of both; Mimnermus of Colophon, the writings of Plato (born 428 B.C.), and his pupil Aristhe flute-player; Stesichones of Himera; Ibycus of totle (born 384 B.C.). Plato was endowed with a brilliant Rhegium; Anacreon and Simonides of Ceos; Hipponax imagination, and loved to soar into the highest regions of of Ephesus; Timocreon of Rhodes; Lasus of Hermione; speculation; while Aristotle was a student and observer, Corinna of Tanagra, the friend and instructress of Pin- practical results being the objects of his investigations. dar. As gnomic writers, Theognis, Phocylides, and Py. Plato's sense of the beautiful was exquisite, and his thagoras, deserve to be named; and as a fabulist, sop. style was at once idiomatic and lofty; while in passages In the order of time, several of these belong to a later it moved in a rich and stately music which all ages. period, but they are properly placed here, on account have admired. Aristotle's style, on the other hand, of the connection. The greatest of all the masters of was terse, logical, close, seldom adorned with poetical lyric song, however, was Pindar, born at Cynosce- embellishments, and never with rhetorical exaggeraphale, in Bootis, in B.C. 522. Of his numerous com- tions. He never entered the world of ideas with positions, we have only the four series of Epinician Plato, but everything he wrote embodied the results of odes, i. ., odes written in commemoration of victories careful and extensive observations, or comparison of gained at the four national festivals,-the Olympic, observations. His works embrace the subjects of Pythian, Nemean, and Isthmian. The earliest writers logic, rhetoric, physics, metaphysics, natural history, of prose were those who first engaged in philosophical and politics. Plato founded the Academic school, speculations. Of their writings, however, only a few whose point of reunion was the Academy on the fragments have been preserved. Thales was the founder Cephissus, north of Athens. Aristotle established the of the Ionic philosophy, to which belonged Pherecydes, Peripatetic school in the Lyceum, near the Ilissus, on Anaximander, Anaximenes, Anaxagoras, &c. Pytha- the opposite side of the city. In the same period, goras established the Italian school, and was followed political eloquence, always a characteristic form of by Alemmon, Timsus, Epicharmus, Theages, Archytas, Greek eloquence, reached its highest perfection. and others. In history the Ionians took the lead. Public discussion was the general rule in the Greek Cadmus of Melitus, about 540 B.C., is the earliest; republics. In Athens, especially, it was indispensably Acesilans of Argos soon followed; then Pherecydes of necessary for the statesman who wished to acquire any Leros, Charon of Lampsacus, Hellamicus of Mitylene, influence to be an eloquent public speaker. Solon, PisisDionysius of Melitus, all of whom preceded Herodotus, tratus, Miltiades, Arístides, Themistocles, and Pericles but are rather chroniclers than historians, in the strict were orators as well as legislators, counsellors, and sense of the term. The first great historian was Hero- generals. Pericles was the first to cultivate the art, dotus of Habcarnassus (484 B.C.), whose delightful and to adorn his mind with the teachings of philosophy work is still preserved, and well entitles him to the and general literary culture. The first rhetorical name of the "Father of History." The drama took its school at Athens was opened by Georgias of Leontini. rise from the festivities with which the country people Other sophists and teachers of rhetoric were Protasolemnized the gathering in of the vintage, and which goras, Prodicus, Hippias, &c. Among the Athenian were accompanied with songs and dances. By degrees, orators whose works are extant, in whole or in part, variety and some measure of art were given to these are Antiphon, Andocides, Lysias, Isocrates, Lycurgus, proceedings. The first direct step to the introduction Hyperides, Eschines, Demades, Demosthenes, and of the drama was made by Thespis, who added action Dinarchus. Mathematics was now cultivated, and to the chorus (B.c. 536), and who exhibited on movable geography served to illustrate history. Astronomy is stages, at the cross-ways or in the villages. He was indebted to the Ionic school, arithmetic to the Italian, followed by Phrynichus, who flourished B.c. 511, and and geometry to the Academic school, for many dis who was the first to bring female characters upon the coveries. As mathematicians, Theodorus of Cyrene, stage. Eschylus, the great perfecter of the tragic art, Meton, Euctemon, Archytas of Tarentum, and Eudoxus was born at Eleusis 525 B.C. He first substituted of Cnidus, were celebrated. Geography was particuactors who repeated their parts by rote, in place of an larly enriched by voyages of discovery, which were intermediate speaker, who related his story extempo-occasioned by commerce; Hanno's voyage to the raneously. Sophocles and Euripides, the other great western coast of Africa, the Periplus of Scylax, a masters of Greek tragedy, flourished soon after Eschy- description of the coasts of the Mediterranean, and the Ins. Comedy was first brought into regular form by discoveries of Pythias of Massilia in the north-west of Epicharmus, who lived about 500 B.C. Cratinus, Crates, Europe, deserve mention. The study of nature was Phrynchus, and Eupolis, are well-known names in this likewise pursued by the philosophers; and the healing field; but the greatest is Aristophanes, who flourished art, hitherto practised by the Asclepiades in the in the early part of the 5th century B.C., and of whose temples, was raised to a distinct science by Hippocomedies eleven have come down to us, though he is crates. The expeditions and achievements of Alexansaid to have written fifty-four. In what is termed the der furnished abundant materials for history and "old comedy," public and private characters were in-study; but, on the whole, the gain was rather in extroduced by name; but subsequently it was forbidden by law to introduce any living person by name, and what is known as the "middle comedy" arose in consequence. The "new comedy" was a still farther modification, which comedy first assumed in the age of Alexander. Of the middle comedy period, only a few fragments of comedies have been preserved. The earliest writer of new comedy was Philippides, who flourished 323 B.C.; and the two most celebrated of his successors were Philemon and Menander. The fer- and Moschus. Mathematics, astronomy, and geotility and excellence of the Greek dramatic literature graphy made great progress during this period. were most remarkable. The prose compositions that During the Roman supremacy, and down to the introbelong to this age were equally distinguished by their duction of Christianity, the principal poet was Nicanappropriate excellences. In history we have Thucy- der; the most important prose writers Polybius, dides (born 471 B.C.), whose work on the Peloponnesian Apollodorus, Dionysius Thrax, Diodorus Siculus, war is not only the first specimen of what has been called philosophical history, but remains unsurpassed

tent than in value. After the death of Alexander, although literature still continued to be cultivated in Greece, yet, till the Roman conquest, the principal seat of letters and science was Alexandria; and this period is called the Alexandrian age. Its characteristics were erudition, criticism, and the study of science; and in poetry, the only original species was the bucolic or idyl. The principal poets were Bion of Smyrna, Theocritus, Aratus, Lycophron, Callimachus,

Dionysius of Halicarnassus, and Dionysius Periegetes.
From this period to the close of the Roman empire in

The

the west, are two parallel series of writers,-the origin of nature and the original matter of the world. Pagan, and the Jewish and Christian. Of the former, The earliest of the schools was the Ionian, beginning the most important are Babrius, Strabo, Epictetus, with Thales, who held that water was the original ele Plutarch, Dion Chrysostomus, Arrian, Pausanias, ment whence all things proceeded. Among his folMarcus Antoninus, Aristides, Lucian, Diogenes Laër-lowers were Anaximander and Anaximenes, the latter of tius, Achilles Tatius, Dion Cassius, Athenæus Herod- whom regarded air as the primary element of all things. ianus, Philostratus, Plotinus, Longinus, Iamblichus; The Italian, or mathematical school, was founded by of the latter, Josephus Philo, the authors of the books Pythagoras, who was distinguished by his knowledge of the New Testament, Clement of Rome, Justinus, of the mathematical sciences, and defined numbers to Polycarp, Irenæus, Clemens of Alexandria, and Origen. be the principles of all things. The Eleatic school, so During the long period which elapsed between the called from Elea, in Italy, from finding creation incomestablishment of the seat of government at Constanti-prehensible, pronounced experience a mere appear. nople, A.D. 330, and the capture of that city by the ance, and endeavoured to determine the nature of Turks, A.D. 1453, the names in Greek literature are things merely from notions of the understanding. comparatively few. They comprise the series of Xenophanes, Parmenides, Melissus, and Zeno belonged authors known as the Byzantine historians; the to this school. Opposed to the Eleatic was the Atomic ecclesiastical and other writers, as Eusebius, Atha- school, at the head of which were Leucippus and nasius, Gregory Nazianzen, Epiphanius, Synesius, Democritus. They asserted the external world to be Socrates, Basilius, Georgius Pisides, Malales, Georgius real, and all things to be made up of minute atoms, Syncellus, Nicephorus, Photius, Constantine Por- invariable, indivisible, and imperceptible, owing to phyrogenitus, Leo (Philosophus) Theodosius; the their extreme tenuity. From these contending rhetoricians and grammarians; a few poets, as Mos-schools arose the class of the Sophists, who, being chus, Quintus of Smyrna, Coluthus, Agathas; and in skilled in the arts of dialectics and rhetoric, distinthe 12th century, Ptochoprodromus; the romance guished themselves as disputants, and, pretending to writers Longus Xenophon of Ephesus, Heliodorus; the universal knowledge, they entirely undermined all historians, as Zosimus, Procopius, Anna Comnena, earnest striving after truth, and destroyed the differand her husband Bryennius, Chalcocondylas, &c. ence between truth and error. The chief of the After the capture of Constantinople, intellectual pur- sophists were Gorgias, Protagoras, Prodicus, Hippias suits languished under the tyranny of the Turk. Since of Elis, Polus, Thrasymachus, and Callicles. the establishment of the Greek kingdom, literature has sophists compelled their antagonists to seek for some made great progress in Greece. In the department of solid foundation on which philosophy might take its education, the publications have been innumerable. stand, and introduced the second period of its hisIn history, works of distinguished merit have appeared, tory, which begins with Socrates. The earnestness and as the history of Souli and Parga, and the "Mili- thoroughness of Socrates opposed itself to the shallowtary Memoirs" by Perrhabos, whose works are quoted ness and flippancy of the sophists. From looking merely with approbation by Niebuhr; the series of histories at external nature, he taught man to look inwards upon by Professor Paparrhegopoulos, distinguished by the himself. His system was more practical than speculaeloquence of their style and the animation of their tive, regarding the great object of philosophy to be narrative; and the "History of the Greek Revolution," the attainment of correct ideas respecting man's moral in four volumes, by Tricoupes. In cultivated poetry, and religious obligations, and the perfection of his we may mention the works of Rizos, of Alexander and nature as a rational being. Among the followers of Panagiotes Soutsos, the younger Rangabes, Zampelios, Socrates, who especially devoted themselves to the Zalacostas, Orphanides, Bernadakes, and numerous pursuits of philosophy, were Antisthenes the Athenian, others. Among dramatic writers, Nervulos, Rangabes, founder of the Cynic school; Aristippus, chief of the and Charmouzis hold a foremost place. Works of Cyrenaic, and Pyrrho, gave their attention exclusively erudition, such as the "Hellenica" of Rangabes, and to questions of morals, and their practical application; the "History of Greek Literature" by Asopios, will while Euclid of Megara, Phædo of Elis, Menedemus of sustain a fair comparison with similar works in other Erebria, were occupied with theoretical or metaphysical European countries; while the lectures and occasional inquiries. The more comprehensive genius of Plato discourses of the professors in the university, among embraced at once both these topics, and attempted to whom we may mention Asopios, Pericles Argyropoulos, build up a complete and connected system of philosophy. Philippos, and Kontogones, have great merit in point (See PLATONIC PHILOSOPHY.) His scholar Aristotle, of style and learning. Many newspapers and other characterized by a great knowledge of nature, as well periodicals are now published at Athens and other as by great logical and reflective powers, became the parts of Greece, as well as at Constantinople, London, founder of the Peripatetic school. (See ARISTOTELIAN &c., in the Neo-Hellenic, and everywhere the people PHILOSOPHY.) The Cynical school finally merged in seem to be making rapid advances. Much that augurs that of the Stoics, and the Cyrenaic in that of well of their future success may be gathered from their Epicurus. From this time (about B.C. 300) dates the conduct during and since their recent revolution commencement of the third period of the history of (1862).-Ref. Browne's History of Classical Literature, Greek philosophy,-that of its decline. The contests 1851; K. O. Müller's History of the Literature of between the different schools led to a spirit of doubt Ancient Greece, continued by J. W. Donaldson (3 vols. being introduced into philosophical speculation, scep8vo. London, 1858); Critical History of the Language ticism began to preva, and attempts were made to and Literature of Ancient Greece, by William Mure unite the different contending parties in a system of (5 vols. London, 1850-57,-not completed). eclecticism.-Ref. Lewes's and Tennemann's Histories of Philosophy.

GREEK PHILOSOPHY.-The philosophy of ancient Greece is important, as being the great source of all subsequent speculation. Down to a recent period, the works of the two great masters, Plato and Aristotle, were universally received and followed. Having given special articles on these two systems (see ARISTOTELIAN PHILOSOPHY, PLATONIC PHILOSOPHY), our object here is to notice shortly some of the more important of the other systems that took their rise in this country. It is usual to divide the history of Greek philosophy into three periods,-its youth, its maturity, and its decline. The first period extends from the time of Thales to GREENFINCH, green'-fintsh (Loxia chloris), belongthat of Socrates (600 to 400 B.C.), and is characterized ing to the Coccothranstes, a species of insessoral bird, by a striving after a knowledge of the ultimate causes of the class Fringillide. It is also called the green of nature and liberty, in which reflection was not yet linnet and green grosbeak. The beak is conical, and systematized nor separated from poetry. The Greek very thick at the base, gradually tapering to a point, mind elevated itself through poetry to philosophy. and of a white colour generally. The head and back The theogonies, cosmogonies, and gnomes formed the of the bird are yellowish green, the breast and rump introduction to philosophy, and connected it with reli-yellow; the tail slightly forked, black in the centre gion. The great subject of inquiry was respecting the and yellow at the edges; the wings long, and green in

GREEN HELLEBORE, green (Sax. grene, green; Lat. helleborus, hellebore). (See VERATRUM.)

GREEN CLOTH, BOARD OF, is a court of justice con nected with the royal household, sitting under the lord high steward, and attended by various officers of the household. It has the charge and supervision of the royal household in all matters of justice and government, with power to take cognizance of all offences committed within the verge of the palace, and two hundred yards beyond the gates.

Greenhouse

colour. The greenfinch is very common in England, and it is easily tamed. It imitates the songs of other birds, but is not much prized as a native songster. (See GROSBEAK.)

X

GREENFINCH.

Greyhound

covered way and across the ditch. Grenades are also thrown into the trenches when the approaches are driven close to the main works.

GRENADIER, gren-a-deer', the name formerly given to any soldier belonging to the infantry or cavalry who carried grenades. Grenadiers were introduced inta the French service in 1667, and into the English ser vice by Charles II., about 1684. They were armed with muskets, swords, pouches containing grenades, and hatchets, and took the lead in the assault of a fortress. At first only two men were selected and trained as grenadiers from each company of the two English regiments of foot-guards that were then in the service; but shortly after there were two companies of grena. diers to each of these regiments, while horse grenadiers were attached to the regiments of life-guards and horse-guards. Until a few years ago, a grenadier company, consisting of the tallest men in the batta lion, formed a part of every regiment of infantry, which took the right when the regiment was in line, and marched first when in column. They were distinguished by wearing bear-skin caps, and shells with fire issuing from them on the collar of the tunic; but they were armed with a rifle and bayonet, like the rest of the regiment; and although they retained the name, they did not perform the duties that were originally assigned to grenadiers.

GREENHOUSE, green-house, in Gardening, a house with a roof and sides of glass, which is used for the enltivation and forcing (see FORCING) of plants GRETNA GREEN MARRIAGES, gret'-nă, is the name given which are too tender to endure the open air all the to a class of irregular marriages which were formerly year, or which have been imported from foreign very common, and took their name from the village of countries. The first of these structures appears to Gretna Green, on the borders of Scotland. They have been erected in the 17th century, acording to originated in the greater laxity admitted by the law of London, who states that the earliest was planned and Scotland than by that of England, on the subject of carried out by one Soloman de Caus, of Heidelberg, marriage. In Scotland, a marriage may be contracted about the year 1619, in order to shelter some orange- by a mutual declaration to that effect by the two partrees which had been transported to the gardens of ties in the presence of witnesses, a mode which is much the town. It is stated in Brande's Dictionary that the more simple and expeditious than that of England; greenhouse, "being a structure of luxury, ought to be and hence it was largely taken advantage of by runaway situated close to the house to which it belongs; and couples from England; the rule being, that a marriage that its length and breadth may vary at pleasure, but is valid in England if contracted according to the law that its height should never be less than that of the of the place in which it was solemnized. Gretna Green loftiest apartments from which it opens." The best being the most convenient place on Scotch ground for aspect for greenhouses is the south or south-east, as in parties from England, the marriages usually took those facing the north or east delicate plants will not place there; but they were also celebrated at Springthrive so well in winter. In most of these buildings field, Annan, Coldstream, and other places along the the plants and shrubs are placed in pots or boxes, border. At Gretna Green and the other places there which are placed on different stages or forms, so that were usually one or more persons who took upon themthe beat may be regulated to suit their different re-selves the duties of the priest, and in whose presence quirements. Sir Joseph Paxton, the architect of the the declaration was made. The marriage service of Great Exhibition of 1851, has planned and erected the Church of England was sometimes read, in order to some of the best examples of greenhouses and similar please the parties. The practice is said to have been structures. (See also separate articles on CONSERVA- begun at Gretna Green rather more than a century TORY, HOTHOUSE, and ORANGERY.) ago, by a person named Paisley, a tobacconist. Afterwards it was carried on by various individuals, each inn, in fact, having its rival priest, besides various others, who carried on the business on their own account. Latterly, the best-known of these worthies was a blacksmith, though he is said to have had a formidable rival in a person who was employed in breaking stones on the roadside, and who in this way had the advantage of getting the first word of the parties in passing. Though sometimes large sums were received, the effect of competition had been to reduce the fee, in some cases, as low as half a crown. The marriages effected in this way were at one time estimated as high as 500 a year. The practice, however, has virtually been put a stop to by 19 & 20 Vict. c. 96, which declares that no valid marriage can be contracted in Scotland, unless one of the parties had, at the date thereof, his or her usual place of residence there, or had lived in Scotland for twenty-one days next preceding such marriage.

GREENLAND WHALE. (See WHALE.) GREEN-ROOM is the name given to the actors' retiring-room in a theatre, and was originally conferred probably on account of its being painted or otherwise ornamented with green.

GREEN-SAND, in Geol., the term applied to the lower portion of the cretaceous system (which see) as developed in the south of England, from the greenish colour of some of the beds of sand.

GREEN SICKNESS. (See CHLOROSIS.) GREENSTONE, in Geol., a general name for the hard granular-crystalline varieties of trap (which see), consisting mainly of felspar and hornblende, felspar and angite, or felspar and hypersthene. The term has reference to the greenish or blackish-green colours which these igneous rocks commonly, though not invariably, exhibit.

GREEN VITRIOL. (See IRON, SULPHATE OF.) GREENWICH HOSPITAL. (See GREENWICH, vol. I. of this work.)

GREGARIOUS ANIMALS, gre-gai-re-us (Lat. gregarius, from grez, a herd), is a term applied, in Nat. Hist., to those animals which have the habit of assembling or living in flocks or herds.

GREGORIAN CALENDAR. (See CALENDAR.) GRENADE, gre-naid' (Sp. granado), a missile invented and brought into use about 1594, consisting of a small shell about two or three inches in diameter, charged with powder, and fired by a fuse, or by percussion-caps placed on nipples projecting from the surface. It is thrown by the hand from the parapet of a fortress, sung soldiers advancing to the assault along the

GREY FRIARS. (See FRANCISCANS.)

GREYHOUND, gray'-hownd (Ang.-Sax.), (Canis graius), a species of dog used for the chase, which appears to have been known even in the most remote ages of antiquity, as it is represented on some of the oldest of Egyptian monuments. Its first portraiture that can be relied on is in a painting on one of the tombs of the fourth dynasty of Egypt, which must be upwards of 4,000 years old. The cultivated English greyhound, according to Blaine's "Encyclopædia of Rural Sports,' exhibits a model of elegance, and a combination of symmetrical proportions probably unrivalled by any other animal but the race-horse; and the perfection

curved upwards at the end. The Irish greyhound, or wolf-dog, is a variety of this animal: it is stronger and GROSBEAK, grose'-beek (C ccothraustes), a bird which larger, but it is not so fit for hunting purposes, as it comes under the general head of Fringillide, in the lacks the speed and keen eyesight of the true grey-sections of Insessores, Conirostres. The characteristics hound. The Italian greyhound is a much smaller variety than the English, and is a very delicate animal. From its diminutive form and tender constitution, it is more fit for the duties of a lapdog than for those of the chase.-Ref. Blaine's Encyclopædia of Rural Sports.

Ground Liverwort

tenement in a burgh is built. It is used in contradis-
tibetion to feu annual.

GROUND LIVERWORT. (See PELTIGERA.)
GROUND NUT. (See ARACHIS.)

Guano

the wood and resin are used as stimulants, diaphoretics, and alteratives, chiefly in gout and rheumatism, and also in syphilitic and various cutaneous affections. G. sanctum, a native of Porto Rico, and G. arboreum, the yield some of the lignum vitae of commerce.

GROUND-REST, in Law, is a periodical payment for guayacan of Cumana and Carthagena, are said to the privilege of building on another's land. GROUNDSEL. (See SENECIO.)

GUALTHERIA, gwal-the'-re-ă, in Bot., a gen. of the nat. ord. Ericacea. The species G. procumbens is a native of North America, and is commonly known as the partridge-berry. Its leaves possess aromatic, astringent, and stimulant properties, which they owe to the presence of a volatile oil and tannin. The oil is known in commerce under the names of oil of partridge-berry and oil of winter-green. An infusion of the leaves is employed in certain parts of North America as a substitute for China tea, and is called Mountain or Salvador tea.

GROUSE, growse (Aug.-Sax.), a species of game bird which belongs to the family of the Tetraonida. The bul is rather short, broad at the base, compressed and arched, with the tip obtuse, the nostrils being placed at the base of the bill, and protected with feathers, or a hard scaly substance; the legs are stout, with the tarsi naked and scutellate, but sometimes covered with feathers to the toes; the hind toe, which is rarely wanting, is rather small and elevated, the wings short and rounded, and the tail also rounded at the extremity. These birds live chiefly on the ground, on which they GUANO, gu-ăn'-o (from the Peruvian word huano, can run with great swiftness, and they feed principally dung), the excrement of sea-fowls, found principally on vegetable substances, such as berries, seeds, and in large quantities upon some parts of the coasts of the buds of trees and shrubs. They vary greatly in Peru, Bolivia, and Africa. Although of comparatively size, some being nearly as large as a turkey, while recent use in this country, guano has been employed others scarcely exceed a pigeon in size. There are as manure by the inhabitants of Peru from the most several varieties of the grouse. The most important remote periods. By its means they have been able to bird of this class is called the capercailzie, or wood render fertile the otherwise unproductive sandy soils grouse. (See CAPERCAILZIE.) To speak correctly, along the coast. While the Incas governed the however, the black-cock (Tetrao tetrix) is one of the country, the birds were protected from violence by largest species of grouse which can be termed truly very severe laws. Any one landing on the guanoBritish, as it is found both in England, Scotland, bearing islands during the period when the birds and Ireland. The form of the tail is one of the most were breeding, was put to death; and a similar peculiar features in this bird, as the four outer sentence was decreed against those who killed any feathers are considerably elongated and curved out of the birds at any time. Baron Humboldt first wardly at the tip, so that the tail has the appearance brought specimens of guano to Europe in 1804, and of a double hook. In its babits and other characteris-sent them, for examination, to Fourcroy, Vauquelin, tice, the black-cock strongly resembles the caper- and Klaproth,-the best analytical chemists of the day. cailie. The common grouse, or ptarmigan (Lagopus He thus described it :-"The guano is deposited in Tulgaria), is another variety of this species, and the layers of 50 or 60 feet thick, upon the granite of many feathers of this bird extend to the very extremity of of the South-Sea islands off the coast of Peru. During the toe. Like the preceding classes, it feeds on ber-300 years the coast birds have deposited guano only a res and the small shoots of plants; and, unlike them, few lines in thickness. This shows how great must it is not polygamous, the males and females pairing have been the number of birds, and how many cenregularly in the breeding season. The red grouse turies must have passed over in order to form the (Lagopna seoticus) is peculiar to these islands, and in-present guano-beds." There seem to be three habits all heathy districts, whether lowland or moun- varieties of guano in Peru: the white, grey, and red. ta bous; whilst the ptarmigan (Lagopus vulgaris) only inhabits very hilly countries, as the northern parts of Europe and the mountainous regions of Spain and Italy. The red grouse is the same colour in plumage all the year round, whilst the ptarmigan acquires a white habit in the winter months. The red grouse is a most prolific bird, and it is wonderful how it can exist in such large numbers, when it is considered what quantities are shot every season to supply the London market between the months of August and Appl.

GRUB, grub (Ang.-Sax.), a small worm: it is a name, however, more properly applied to the hexapod worms produced from the eggs of beetles, &c., which are eventually transformed into winged insects. (For further information, see PUPA.)

Gats, grea (Lat. grus, a crane), the name of one of Beyer's constellations in the southern hemisphere, between Endanus and Sagittarius. It has no stars of the Brst or second magnitude.

The red is the oldest deposit, and the white the most recent. Bones and feathers of birds, together with crystalline deposits, are found amongst the layers of excrement. A large portion of the so-called Peruvian guano is imported from the Chincha islands. These islands, which are three in number, are respectively about five or six miles in circumference, composed of granite, and covered with guano, in some places to a height of 200 feet. No earthy matter is mixed with this great accumulation of excrement. During the last few years, the export of guano has increased considerably. Between 300,000 and 400,000 tons are the annual amount at present. A large number of men, many of whom are Chinese, are employed to remove the guano to the ships. They work their way through the mass with pickaxes, and leave a sort of wall on either side. It is then removed in wheelbarrows, either direct to the mouths of the shoots at the edge of the cliff, or to the huge waggons running on tramways for the same purpose. With regard to the operation of guano as a manure, there has always been a good deal of discrepancy in the statements put forth as to its operation. There can, however, be GUAIACUM,grai'-yd-kum (fr. guayac, its native name), little donbt that it is a very efficient manure. a gen, of the nat, ord. Zygophyllacea. The species operation in Peru is seen in the conversion of the G. oficiale is a fine evergreen tree from 40 to 60 feet sandy desert near Lima into a soil capable of bearing in he ght, and of a dark, gloomy aspect. It is a native large crops of maize. The Peruvians have a proverb of the West-India islands, particularly Cuba, St. concerning it, which affirms that "Huano, though no Domingo, and the south side of Jamaica. The wood saint, works many miracles." There are several comis remarkable for its hardness, toughness, and dura-mercial varieties of guano, the principal of which are bilty, qualities which render it particularly valuable-Peruvian, Angamos, Ichaboe, Patagonian, Saldanha for many purposes. It is known in commerce as ligam eite. This wood, and a resin obtained from it, are oficial in our pharmacopoeias, and are commonly known in the shops respectively as guaiacum-wood and guaiacum-resin. The latter is generally procured by beating the wood, either by boiling chips in salt water, er more commonly by burning hollow billets, and estching the resin as it flows out from them. It also ecades to some extent spontaneously, and especially so when the tree is eut or wounded in any way. Both

GRTYBOSIS, gri-fo'-sis (Gr., from grupoein, to incurvate), in Surg., is a disease of the nails, which turn inwards, and irritate the soft parts below.

Its

Bay, Kooria Mooria, African, and Indian. In chemical analysis, guano shows that one of the most, if not the most, important of its constituents is ammonia: some varieties contain from 17 to 20 per cent. Guano also contains potash and a considerable quantity of chloride of sodium (common salt). Next to the ammonia, the phosphoric acid seems to hold the place of importance. The average quantity of phosphate of lime in the seve ral kinds of imported guano varies from 17 to 25 per cent. Good guano, when analyzed, is found to contain