indolent acquiescence in the church established, led many of every rank to wish well to the royal cause; docile souls who had never felt the lash, as they had quietly submitted to the yoke, they wondered that others should be so restive, and in their lowly content for their meat and their portion they cast admiring eyes upon the glitter and pomp of the king and the church. To such minds liberty and a pure worship of God were abstractions which they failed to reach. The Catholics, with whom escape from persecution was of more importance than political freedom enjoyed by others, gave their support to the king, from the belief that they had more to expect from his forbearance than from the toleration of the Puritans, who had for years made it a burden of their complaint that too much indulgence had been shown to the papists.

The king had so little money that had it not been for the generosity of a Catholic nobleman, the Marquis of Worcester, he had wanted wherewithal to support the expenses of his table at York. Obliged now to depend upon voluntary contributions, he did not gather in as he had done with his forced loans, ship-money, and the rapacious fines of the Star Chamber. The queen had gone to Holland, ostensibly to be present at the marriage of her daughter to the Prince of Orange, but really to sell the crown jewels to raise money for munitions of war. The University of Oxford, the centre of episcopacy and conservatism, sent its plate. Cambridge was preparing to do the like when Oliver Cromwell, M.P. for the town, promptly seized the silver for the parliament. On the whole, contributions came in slowly and scantily.

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The recusant members from Westminster, most of them friendly both to the king and to the constitution, themselves uneasy and perplexed, damped the courage of the royalists, while their absence from the parliament gave unity and strength to that assembly. Diffident of success, and obliged to humour even his own partisans by conferences and negotiations with the parliament, now ruling so large a part of England from Westminster, the king was vacillating in his moods and his preparations slow. It was only on August 25 that Charles set up his standard on the hill looking down upon Nottingham, with a proclamation which announced the beginning of the Civil War. "There appeared no conflux of men in obedience to his summons, and a general sadness covered the whole town. The standard was blown down the same night it had been set up by a strong and unruly wind, and could not be fixed again for a day or two" (Clarendon). The Earl of Essex was forming the national army at Northampton, and if he had pushed forward, the king had either been taken or put to flight with his unready levies. The parliament was not anxious to begin the war, and none thought it would last so long and inflict so many miseries on the country.

Neither party could bring forward disciplined soldiers; military training had fallen much into disuse. There were few officers to be got skilled in manœuvres. Men who had served in the Low Countries were much in demand. There were no generals capable of comprehensive strategic plans. There were few fortresses able to resist cannon; but field artillery was of little use. Firearms had not yet attained such

them friendly both to the king in the unstin themselves and perpleed taped the cong of the rupalim wile their theme in the pri ment gave unity and streapt Diffident of us, and diliged own parties by teens and p the parliament w clip a from Westmine, da ling a day is

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nent were mostly yeomen, farmers, ither so well mounted, so firm in o forward at the new trade of war. however, were not a few of the of the gentry and some of the naturally appeared at the front, r went on the more capable and e to command. The parliamentary sketeers and pikemen, from the able to match the royal troops.

whole armies there was an eneeper than the fantastic loyalty of Their staid and sober demeanour he swaggering and licentious ways of Rupert and Goring. Men learn under fire; every month made the ter soldiers, and strengthened the new regiments.

es there was a struggle between the al commissions and the ordinances of The Cavaliers broke into the houses ads and took away their horses and money and plate. The parliament It fared ill with the weakest in the parties accused one another of oodguiltiness. Discipline was slack. ore easily enlisted the drunkards and ntious lives who affected a noisy

Prince Rupert at once began he fashion of the Thirty Years' War, men to live at free quarters both on His camps were followed by numbers men who gained an evil character for

precision of aim and sureness of discharge as to be the decisive weapon in warfare. The foot soldiers wore defensive armour; the musketeers had their cartridges slung round their belts, and carried rests for their matchlocks, which they stuck in the ground. The bayonet was unknown; one half of the infantry bore pikes; when charged at close quarters the musketeers took shelter behind the rows of pikemen who formed ten deep. The dragoons were mounted infantry, wearing steel caps and buff coats, with short guns and swords. The cavalry sabre decided many a fight. In fact, cavalry, not infantry, was then the basis of military action.1 Fairfax, Cromwell, Rupert, and David Leslie were all cavalry officers.

At the outset there was not enough of weapons to arm all the combatants. The country gentleman took down the old swords and spears in his hall and distributed them to his servants and tenants; some had to make shift with scythes at the end of poles; even the long bow came into use.

The country gentlemen who took the field for the king began the struggle with some advantages. They brought out their keepers, grooms, and hangers-on. Most of them were already good riders and tolerable marksmen, inured to hunting and field sports, and practised in fencing and single stick. Thus squadrons were promptly formed, obedient to command, which presented a brave show. On the other hand, the re

1 At the siege of Drogheda, Cromwell refers to the difficulty of acting with infantry alone against the enemy's horse and foot. Even after the parliamentary infantry had passed through the breach, and gained possession of a church, little way was made till the enemy's cavalry was dispersed by a battery of artillery, and Cromwell's horse with much difficulty brought into the town.