of Paulus Æmilius at Pydna, B. C. 168. Some authors mention a third, beginning upon the usurpation of Andriscus, the pretended son of Perseus, B. C. 152, and ended by Metellus, B. C. 148.

MAGNESIA, the battle of, fought near a town of that name on the river Mæander in Asia Minor, and gained by L. Scipio (thence surnamed Asiaticus) over Antiochus the Great, king of Syria, B. C. 190, Tab. IX.

MANTINEA, the battle of, fought near a town of that name of Arcadia, in Peloponnesus, and gained by the Thebans under Epaminondas over the combined forces of Sparta, Achaia, Elis, Athens, and Arcadia, B. C. 363, Tab. VIII. Epaminondas fell in the arms of victory, and the consternation occasioned in his army by his death, prevented the Thebans from following up the advantages they had gained, so that Xenophon declares it to have been a drawn battle. The victory was claimed on both sides, though the Thebans had manifestly the advantage.

MARATHON, the battle of, fought near a village of that name in Attica, and gained by 10,000 Athenians, and 1000 Platæans under Miltiades, over the immense army of Xerxes, king of Persia, consisting of 100,000 foot, and 10,000 horse, B. C. 490, (Tab. VIII.)

MARSIC WAR, begun B. C. 91, (Tab. X.) and lasted three years; see page 411.

MEDIA, a country of Asia, bounded on the north by the Caspian sea; west, by Armenia; south, by Persia; and east, by Parthia and Hyrcania. It derived its name from Madai, son of Japheth, who was the first settler in it. Some objection has been made to this etymology of the name, upon the score of its placing Madai entirely out of the line of settlement of the family of Japheth. Mr. Mede places Madai in Macedonia, which would, indeed, make his settlement join that of his brother Javan; but the same object may be answered by settling him near Magog, whose southern boundary extended to the northern one of Madai.* The Medes seem to have fallen very early into subjection to the Assyrians, and we can trace nothing of their history as an independant state till the time of Sennacherib, from whom they revolted, B. C. 710, (Tab. VII.), and after an anarchy of about seven years, made Dejoces, their late governor, king, B. C. 703.† Dejoces built Ecbatana, the capital of Media, and after a reign of forty years, left the throne to his son Phraortes, B. C. 663. He was the Arphaxad of the Book of Judith, who was defeated and killed by Nebuchodonosor, king of Assyria, in the battle of Rages (or Ragau), B. C. 641, when Media again fell under the Assyrian power. Phraortes was succeeded by his son Cyaxares 1. (the Ahasuerus of the Book of Tobit) who, meditating the recovery of his father's losses, and the revenge of his death upon the king of Assyria, endeavoured to improve the military polity of

*See Univ. Hist, vol. i. p. 62. Professor Paxton's Illustrations of Scripture, vol. i. p. 379. Lempriere derives the name from Medus, the son of Medea,

+ The year B. C. 709, is assigned by Prideaux, and 700 by Blair, to the beginning of the reign of Dejoces; but Dr. Hales prefers 703 as above.

his kingdom; and taking advantage of the confusion into which the defeat of Holofernes had thrown the Assyrians, in the second year of his reign he made an attempt upon Nineveh, B. C. 640, but was diverted from it by an invasion of his territories by the Scythians, against whom, he was obliged to turn his arms, and having expelled the invaders after a struggle of twenty-eight years, he again turned his views towards Assyria. He was impeded in them by a new war, in which he was obliged to engage with the Lydians, and which lasted four years, beginning B. C. 608. To further his designs upon Assyria, he formed an alliance with Nabopolassar, king of Babylon, assisted by whom, he besieged Nineveh, which was taken and destroyed B. C. 606. Cyaxares still adhering to his Babylonian ally, assisted him in his expeditions against Egypt, Ethiopia, &c., until all the component provinces of the Assyrian empire, were subjected to their combined powers, and by these conquests, both the Babylonian and Median territories were greatly extended. Cyaxares I. was succeeded by his son (or according to some, his grandson) Astyages, B. C. 601. The only event to be remarked in his reign is the war with the Babylonians, which broke out near the end of the reign of Nebuchadnezzar. Astyages was succeeded by his son Cyaxares II. (called in Scripture Darius the Mede), B. C. 566. Under him, Cyrus, as generalissimo of the united armies of Media and Persia, conquered Cræsus, king of Lydia, B. C. 548, and ten years afterwards took Babylon, and placed Cyaxares upon the throne, B. C. 538. Cyrus himself succeeded the following year, B. C. 537.

The foregoing sketch of Median history has been principally extracted from Dr. Hales's Analysis of Sacred and Profane Chronology, as more consistent both with Scripture, and with the several branches of the Assyrian and Babylonian empires, than the dates assigned by either Blair or Prideaux to the leading events.

MESSENIAN WARS, between the Spartans and Messenians, undertaken upon pretence of some indignities offered by the Messenians to some Spartan women who had assembled to offer sacrifices at a temple common to both nations. The first, began B. C. 743, (Tab. VII.); the second, B. C. 685; see p. 376.

METAURUS, the battle of, fought near a town of that name in Umbria, in Italy, during the second Punic war, and gained by the consuls, Livius and Claudius Nero, over the Carthaginians, in which Asdrubal was killed, B. C. 207, (Tab. IX.)

MITHRIDATIC WAR, between Mithridates, king of Pontus, and the Romans, began B. C. 89, and after a struggle of twenty-six years was ended by Pompey, and Mithridates killed himself, B. C. 63, (Tab. X.), p. 411, 413.

MUNDA, the battle of, fought near a town of that name in Hispania Bætica, and gained by Julius Cæsar over the sons and lieutenants of Pompey, B. C. 45, Tab. X. This battle was so fierce and desperate, that Cæsar often said, at all other places he had fought for glory, but at Munda for his life.

MUTINA, the battle of, gained by the consuls Hirtius and Pansa over M. Antony, who had besieged Decimus Brutus in that place, (now called Modena) B. C. 43, Tab. X.

MYCALE, the battle of, fought near the city of that name in Asia Minor, opposite to Samos, and gained by Leutychides, the Spartan admiral, over Xerxes and the Persian army, B. C. 479, Tab. VIII. MYCENE, a town of Argolis, built by Perseus, who removed the seat of government thither from Argos, B. C. 1344, Tab. IV.

NAXOS, the sea fight of, off the island of that name, in which Chabrias the Athenian general defeated the Lacedemonians, B. C. 377, Tab. VIII.

NICIAN PEACE, so named after Nicias the Athenian general, who concluded it in the tenth year of the Peloponnesian war between the Lacedemonians and Athenians, and their respective allies for fifty years, by which it was agreed that the garrisons should be evacuated, and the towns and prisoners restored on both sides, B. C. 421, Tab. VIII.

NINEVEH, a celebrated city of Asia, and the capital of the Assyrian empire, supposed to have been built by Nimrod, (see page 343), and destroyed by the combined forces of Cyaxares, king of Media, and Nabopolasser, king of Babylon, B. C. 606, Tub. VII. p. 352.

NUMANTINE WAR, begun by the people of Numantia in Spain, against the Romans, B. C. 141, and ended by the destruction of that place by Scipio Africanus II. B. C. 132, Tab. X.

OGYGES, the Deluge of, by which Attica was laid waste for nearly 200 years, B. C. 1764, (Tab. III.) It was named after an ancient king of Greece, in whose reign it happened.

OLYMPIC GAMES, the most ancient and solemn of all the festivals observed by the Greeks. They derived their name either from Olympia, in Elis, where they were first celebrated, or from Jupiter Olympius, to whom they were dedicated. Their first institution is ascribed to the Idæi Dactyli, B. C. 1453, (Tab. IV.); they were renewed by Hercules, B. C. 1322; and again by Iphitus, king of Elis, B. C. 884; but were not permanently established till the conquest of Corabus, who won the prize July 19th, or 23d, B. C. 776, (Tab. VI.) whence is dated the era of the Olympiads. This epoch is considered as the boundary between the fabulous and historical times. The Olympiad was a period of four years, the games being celebrated at the beginning of every fifth. In them was exhibited all feats of strength, agility, and dexterity, the prize was a crown of olive; see p. 375.

OSTRACISM, a law by which the citizens of Athens were banished for ten years. Every citizen, not under sixty years of age might give in a name written upon an oyster shell, (whence the term Ostracism) and he upon whom the majority fell was banished; see page 377.

OVATION; see TRIUMPH.

PANATHENEA, feasts in honour of Minerva, (the fabled “ wisdom" of the heathens,) who, as the tutelary goddess of Athens, was called

66

Athenæa; and Pan was the most ancient of the gods of Egypt (whence the Athenians derived their origin) and was symbolical of the universe, so that the Panathenæa, signified a feast in honour of the DIVINE WISDOM. A part of the ceremonial in this festival was the covering of the statue of the goddess with a veil, emblematical of the hidden or incomprehensible nature of DIVINE WISDOM in the formation of the universe. This was the unknown God alluded to by Paul in his speech to the men of Athens. Acts xvii. 22, &c. It was usual at these feasts to set all prisoners at liberty, and to present golden crowns to such as had deserved well of their country. This festival, like most others, was an hieroglyphical representation of Divine truths borrowed from Egypt, and ultimately from the Hebrews; see Eleusinian Games. The ceremonials were retained after their original signification was lost. Some authors suppose the Panathenæa so named, in commemoration of the union of "all" the people of Attica in one state.

PANEAS, the battle of, fought in Coelo-Syria, and gained by Antiochus the Great, over Scopas the Egyptian general, B. C. 198, Tab. IX.

PARTHIA, a country of Asia, bounded on the west by Media; south, by Carmania; north, by Hyrcania; and east, by Aria. It successively formed a province of the empires of Babylon, Persia, and Macedon, and the Parthians were little known or noticed, till they revolted under Arsaces their governor, who founded the Parthian empire, B. C. 251, (Tab. IX.) which became so powerful as even to resist the Roman arms, after every other state had been subjected by them. The Arsacidæ, (or descendants of Arsaces) occupied the throne in the following order; Arsaces II., (who maintained a war with Antiochus the Great, king of Syria, B. C. 212, which ended in an advantageous peace, by which the Parthian territory was confirmed to Arsaces, B. C. 208), Priapatius, Phraates, Mithridates, surnamed the Great, who subdued the Medes, Persians, Bactrians, &c. and extended his dominions over all the countries between the Euphrates on the west, and the Ganges, on the east. He defeated and took prisoner Demetrius II., king of Syria, B. C. 141, (Tab. X.) Phraates II. succeeded Mithridates. He was, at first, unsuccessful in his wars with Syria; but at length recovered his losses, and defeated and killed Antiochus Sidetes, B. C. 130. Artabanus succeeded Mithridates, and was suc、 ceeded by Pacorus, who first made an alliance with the Romans; he was succeeded by Phraates III., who was murdered by his two sons, and succeeded by the eldest, Orodes. It was under this monarch that Parthia was invaded by Crassus, the Roman proconsul of Syria, B. C. 54, who was defeated and killed, the year following, B. C. 53, by Surenas the Parthian general. Orodes, jealous of the fame of Surenas, put him to death, which act of ingratitude was fully revenged fourteen years afterwards, when Ventidius the Roman general, lieutenant of Marc Antony, defeated and killed Pacorus, the son of Orodes, B. C. 39. Orodes was murdered by his son Phraatès 1V, a monster of cruelty, who also put to death his own son, of whom he

was jealous. In his time Parthia was reduced to submission by the Romans. Phraates was poisoned by his wife, who placed upon the throne his son Phraatices, in whose reign Jesus Christ was born. His successors, of the race of the Arsacidæ, reigned in Parthia till the year A. D. 229, when they were conquered by Artaxerxes, king of Persia.

PELOPONNESIAN WAR, so called from the inhabitants of Peloponnesus, between whom and the Athenians, with their respective allies, it was kept up for twenty-seven years, beginning B. C. 431, (Tab. VIII.) The ostensible cause of this war, was the interference of the Athenians in the quarrels of the Epidamnians with Corcyra, in violation of a treaty then existing between all the Greek states, (see Corcyra); but the real origin of it must be traced to the jealousies of the Athenians and Spartans, both aspiring to supremacy in Greece, and ready to take advantage of every opportunity of competition. The Athenians having assisted the Corcyrians against the Corinthians, the latter appealed to the Lacedemonians, and so the war began. On the side of the Spartans, were all the Peloponnesian states, except Argos and part of Achaia, (which at first, stood neuter, but afterwards, joined them) besides the Megareans, Phocians, Locrians, Boeotians, Ambraciots, Leucadians, and Anactorians. The Athenians were supported by the Chians, Lesbians, Platæans, Messenians, (then inhabiting Naupactus) Acarnanians, Corcyrians, Zacinthians, and Thracians, with many islands of the Cyclades, and most of the Asiatic Grecians. Pericles was at this time at the head of the Athenian affairs. The first act of aggression was on the part of the Boeotians in an attempt to surprise Platæa, and was followed by an invasion of Attica by the Spartans. A pestilence at Athens for five years, B. C. 430, (in which Pericles died the next year) the revolt of Lesbos to the Spartans, a sedition at Corcyra, and the defec tion of Sitalces, king of Thrace, turned the tide of affairs against the Athenians for the first years of the war; but the successes of Demosthenes in Ætolia afterwards, gave them the advantage, and the Peloponnesians were reduced to sue for peace, which was denied them by Cleon, (the successor of Pericles), but they afterwards recovered themselves, and a battle was fought in which both Brasidas, the Spartan general, and Cleon being killed, a peace was concluded by Nicias for fifty years, B. C. 421. This, however, was soon broken by the intrigues of Alcibiades, and the Athenians made a league of 100 years with Argos, including Elis and Mantinea. By the advice of Alcibiades also, the war was carried into Sicily, B. C. 416. Alcibiades being disgraced, went over to the Spartans, and instigated them to succour the Syracusans, and soon afterwards, they recommenced hostilities by taking Decelia, (see Deceliun war), B. C. 414; and the Athenians being at the same time defeated in Sicily, were reduced to great extremities. Under the conduct of Alcibiades, however, who was recalled and made generalissimo of the Athenian forces, B. C. 407, they again rallied; but the successes of Lysander, who the same year was made generalissimo of the Spartans,