:

ways of carriage, and measures of civility in all the variety of persons, times, and places, and keep his pupil, as much as his age requires, constantly to the observation of them.' He 'should know the world well the ways, the humours, the follies, the cheats, the faults of the age he has fallen into, and particularly of the country he lives in.' He should be able to teach Latin conversationally. To secure this paragon of knowledge, virtue, and good breeding, Locke thinks that parents ought to be willing to incur considerable expense. As to the charge of it,' he says, 'I think it will be the money best laid out that can be, about our children; and therefore, though it may be expensive more than is ordinary, yet it cannot be thought dear. He that at any rate procures his child a good mind, well principled, tempered to virtue and usefulness, and adorned with civility and good breeding, makes a better purchase for him, than if he had laid out the money for an addition of more earth to his former acres.' (§ 90.) He recognises the difficulty of finding such a tutor as he describes, for those of small age, parts, and virtue, are unfit for this employment, and those that have greater will hardly be got to undertake such a charge;' but no care: or cost is to be spared in getting a suitable man.

How likely persons not in possession of large means would be to secure tutors that approached Locke's standard may be inferred from a passage in one of Mr. Molyneux's letters to Locke. Mr. Molyneux was so smitten with Locke's ideal tutor, that he sought his friend's help in getting such a one on the following terms :-'He should eat at my own table, and have his lodging, washing, firing, and candlelight in my house, in a good handsome apartment; and besides this I should allow him 20%. per annum ' ! '

1 Tutors were miserably underpaid down to the present century. Steele says (Guardian, No. 94): "The price, indeed, which is thought a sufficient reward for any advantages a youth can receive from a man of learning, is an abominable consideration; the enlarging which would not only increase the care of tutors, but would be a very great encouragement to such as designed to take this province upon them, to furnish themselves with a more general and extensive knowledge. As the case now stands, those of the first quality pay their tutors but little above half so much as they do their footmen: what morality, what history, what taste of the modern languages, what, lastly, that can make a man happy or great, may not be expected in return for such

Having himself been, through life, delicate, and having paid special attention to medicine, Locke naturally attaches great importance to the healthy development of the physical frame, though he knew little of the close interdependence of mind and body. He says in the opening of his Essay 'I imagine the minds of the children turned this or that way, as water itself; and though this be the principal part, and our main care should be about the inside, yet the clay cottage is not to be neglected. I shall, therefore, begin with the case.' Modern science has taught us that the body is something more than a 'case' to some mysterious mental mechanism inside it. It has shown that all our mental operations have physical correlatives, and that the health and vigour of the mind are dependent on the health and vigour of the body as a whole, and more especially of those parts of the body which are the immediate instruments of the mind.

Without pursuing any methodical treatment of the subject, Locke makes some valuable remarks on warmth, swimming, air, habits, clothing, diet, meals, drink, sleep, and medicine. On some of these points he anticipates many of the conclusions of modern science, but on others his advice is to be received with great caution. He recommends plenty of open air, exercise, and sleep; plain diet, no wine or strong drink, and very little or no physic; not too warm and strait clothing; especially the head and feet kept cold, and the feet often used to cold water and exposed to wet.' He would advise that the young gentleman's feet should be washed in cold water every day, and that he should have his shoes so thin that they might leak and let in water whenever he comes near it.' Locke evidently believed in the hardening system, which is now, I need scarcely say, completely discredited. A wide induction, based upon both the lower animals and upon man, proves conclusively that the creatures which survive the hardening process are not rendered strong by it, but in spite of it, and that good and sufficient food, regular meals, and warmth are indispensable to the highest physical development. The an immense treasure! It is monstrous, indeed, that the men of the best estates and families are more solicitous about the tutelage of a favourite dog or horse, than of their heirs male.'

weak are killed off in the hardening process; 1 and even in those cases in which the hardening process seems to be completely successful, it will be found that the success is purchased at the expense of growth. When all, however, has been said against Locke's views on this subject, there can be no question that a little 'healthy neglect' is better than what he calls 'cockering.'

Locke, while disposed to trust to nature in most things, seems afraid to trust natural taste and appetite in the matter of eating and drinking. He would withhold flesh meat from children for the first three or four years of their lives, and even after that would not give it more than once a day, or of more than one sort at a meal. He would have food sparingly seasoned with sugar, and would prohibit all sweetmeats. We have come to believe that, while it is highly inexpedient to give food to children which they cannot digest, their food should, on the whole, be rather more than less nutritive than that of adults, seeing that they have not only to compensate for waste, and for a radiation of heat greater

1 Mr. Herbert Spencer says: 'Among the sensations serving for our guidance are those of heat and cold; and a clothing which does not carefully consult these sensations is to be condemned. The common notion about "hardening" is a grievous delusion. Not a few children are "hardened " out of the world; and those who survive permanently suffer either in growth or constitution. The reasoning on which this hardening theory rests is extremely superficial. Wealthy parents, seeing little peasant boys and girls playing about in the open air only halfclothed, and joining with this fact the general healthiness of labouring people, draw the unwarrantable conclusion that the healthiness is the result of the exposure, and resolve to keep their own offspring scantily covered! It is forgotten that these urchins who gambol upon village greens are in many respects favourably circumstanced-that their lives are spent in almost perpetual play; that they are all day breathing fresh air; and that their systems are not disturbed by overtaxed brains. When, the constitution being sound enough to bear it, exposure does produce hardness, it does so at the expense of growth. This truth is displayed alike in animals and in man. Shetland ponies bear greater inclemencies than the horses of the south, but are dwarfed. Highland sheep and cattle, living in a colder climate, are stunted in comparison with English breeds. In both the arctic and antarctic region the human race falls much below its ordinary height; the Laplanders and the Fuegians are very short; and the Terra-delFuegians, who go naked in a wintry land, are described by Darwin as so stunted and hideous, that "one can hardly make oneself believe that they are fellow-creatures."-Educ. 163-4.

in proportion to their bulk than in the case of adults, but to satisfy the demands of growth. There is something very seductive in the word 'plain' which always affects us sober Englishmen. We like plainness in everything, in food, clothing, habitations, speech, oratory, and with what effect we all know. Our food is unvaried and insipid; our clothing is plain to the point of ugliness; our habitations are monotonously devoid of beauty; our speech is too often blunt to the point of offensiveness; our orators are often plain to the point of dulness. Everywhere we regard variety and ornament with suspicion. Physiology, on the other hand, teaches the value of a varied and appetising diet. The satiety produced by an often-repeated dish,' says Mr. Herbert Spencer, and the gratification caused by one long a stranger to the palate, are not meaningless, as people carelessly assume; but they are the incentives to a wholesome diversity of diet. It is a fact established by numerous experiments, that there is scarcely any one food, however good, which supplies in due proportions or right forms all the elements required for carrying on the vital processes in a normal manner; whence it follows that frequent change of food is desirable to balance the supplies of all the elements. It is a further fact, known to physiologists, that the enjoyment given by a much-liked food is a nervous stimulus which, by increasing the action of the heart and so propelling the blood with increased vigour, aids in the subsequent digestion. And these truths are in harmony with the maxims of modern cattle-feeding, which dictate a rotation of diet.' (p. 160.) The love of children for sweetmeats is something more than a desire to gratify the palate. Sugar is largely consumed in the body as a heat-producer,' and, if

1 Here again I am tempted to quote Mr. Herbert Spencer: Both saccharine and fatty matters are eventually oxidised in the body; and there is a corresponding evolution of heat. Sugar is the form to which sundry other compounds have to be reduced before they are available as heat-making food; and this formation of sugar is carried on in the body. Not only is starch changed into sugar in the course of digestion, but it has been proved by M. Claude Bernard that the liver is a factory in which other constituents of food are transformed into sugar: the need for sugar being so imperative that it is even thus produced from nitrogenous substances when no others are given. Now when to this fact, that children have a marked desire for this valuable heat-food, we

children are not supplied with it, other bodies will be converted into sugar to supply its place. Even as regards the quantity of food which a child should eat, we are beginning to pay more heed to his appetite than to our own preconceived views of what is enough for him. Children rarely eat or drink to excess unless it be when under the influence of a reaction from unwise restrictions; and, even when our over-legislation tempts them to excess, the ill effects of such excess are rarely so serious as those of continued underfeeding.

Locke's remarks on cold water accord with modern practice. Tubbing' has become almost universal among the educated classes. But happily we have not yet come to believe that it is wise to provide children with thin boots to admit the wet. It would assuredly be safer to let children run barefoot than to keep their feet always wet. Yet we are told that Lord Ashley, Locke's pupil, though naturally a delicate youth, grew strong under this Spartan mode of treatment. Locke strongly condemns tampering with the body by giving medicine for every little ailment. He would trust largely to dieting and nature's own correctives. Not a few parents, I suspect, will recognise the truth of the following remarks on the over-anxious and misguided cockering of children :

'Is my young master a little out of order, the first question is "What will my dear eat? What shall I get for thee?" Eating and drinking are instantly pressed; and everybody's invention is set on work to find out something luscious and delicate enough to prevail over that want of appetite, which nature has wisely ordered in the beginning of distempers, as a defence against their increase; that, being freed from the ordinary labour of digesting any new load in the stomach, she may be at leisure to correct and master the peccant humours.'

The reader has already seen the great importance which Locke attached to moral education. The great aim of the

join the fact that they have usually a marked dislike to that food which gives out the greatest amount of heat during oxidation (namely, fat), we have reason for thinking that excess of the one compensates for defect of the other-that the organism demands more sugar because it cannot deal with much fat.' (p. 150.)