he did not discontinue his journal; and in Dec. 1831, the legislature of Georgia passed an act, offering a reward of $5,000 to any person who should arrest, bring to trial, and prosecute to conviction, under the laws of that state, the editor or the publisher. Many of Mr. Garrison's friends, deeming his life seriously imperilled, besought him to arm himself for defence; but, being a non-resistant, he was conscientiously restrained from following their advice. On Jan. 1, 1832, he secured the cooperation of 11 others with himself in organizing the New England (afterward Massachusetts) anti-slavery society, upon the principle of immediate emancipation. This was the parent of those numerous affiliated associations by which the anti-slavery agitation was for many years maintained. In the spring of 1832 he published a work entitled "Thoughts on African Colonization," &c., in which he set forth at length the grounds of his opposition to that scheme. He went immediately afterward to England, as an agent of the New England anti-slavery society, to solicit the coöperation of the people of that country in measures designed to promote emancipation in the United States, and to lay before them his views of the colonization project. He was warmly received by Wilberforce, Brougham, and their associates. In consequence of statements made by Mr. Garrison, Wilberforce and 11 of his most prominent coadjutors issued a protest against the American colonization society, pronouncing its plans delusive, and its influence an obstruction to the abolition of slavery. He also succeeded in inducing Mr. George Thompson, one of the most prominent champions of the anti-slavery cause in Great Britain, to come to the United States as an anti-slavery lecturer. Soon after Mr. Garrison's return, the American anti-slavery society was organized at Philadelphia, upon the principles of which he was the champion. The "Declaration of Sentiments" issued by the association -an elaborate paper, setting forth its principles, aims, and methods was prepared by him. The agitation previously excited was now greatly intensified, and at length awakened a resistance which manifested itself in a mobocratic spirit, insomuch that for 2 or 3 years the holding of an anti-slavery meeting almost anywhere in the free states was a signal for riotous demonstrations, imperilling property and life. Mr. Thompson's arrival from England in 1834 inflamed the public mind to such a degree that at length, by the advice of his friends, he was induced to desist from his labors and return to his native land. In Oct. 1835, a meeting of the female anti-slavery society of Boston was riotously broken up by a collection of persons, described in the journals of the day as "gentlemen of property and standing." Mr. Garrison, who went to the meeting to deliver an address, after attempting to conceal himself from the fury of the mob in a carpenter's shop in the rear of the hall, was violently seized, let down by a rope from the window to the ground, and, partly denuded of his clothing, dragged through the streets to the city hall; whence, as

the only means of saving his life, he was taken to gaol by order of the mayor, upon the nominal charge that he was "a disturber of the peace." He was released on the following day, and, under protection of the city authorities, escorted to a place of safety in the country. These scenes of violence were followed by a discussion of the peace question, in which he took an earnest part as a champion of nonresistance; and in 1838 he led the way in the organization of the New England non-resistance society. The "Declaration of Sentiments" issued by that body was prepared by him. About this time, the question of the rights of women as members of the anti-slavery societies began to be mooted, Mr. Garrison contending that, so far as they wished to do so, they should be permitted to vote, serve on committees, and take part in discussion, on equal terms with men. Upon this question there was a division of the American anti-slavery society in 1840; and in the "World's Anti-Slavery Convention," held that year in London, Mr. Garrison, being a delegate from that society, refused to take a seat because the female delegates from the United States were excluded. In 1843 he was chosen president of the society, and has continued to hold the office till this time (1859). He was ever earnestly opposed to the formation of a political party by the abolitionists, from a conviction that such a measure would inevitably corrupt the purity of the movement and postpone the day when emancipation might be secured. He never sought or contemplated the abolition of slavery in the states by congress, or any other branch of the national government, his views as to the powers of that government over the subject being the same that were generally held by statesmen of all parties at the North, as well as by many at the South. His first idea was, that slavery might be abolished by moral influence, with such incidental aid as the national government could constitutionally afford, and without disturbing the union of the states; but upon this point he at length changed his opinions, his observation of the movements of political parties and his reflections upon the provisions of the constitution relating to the subject leading him to the settled conclusion that some of the conditions of compact between the free and the slave states were immoral, and that a dissolution of the Union was necessary to the freedom of the North and the emancipation of the slaves. In 1846 he made his third visit, for anti-slavery purposes, to Great Britain. In 1843 a small volume of his "Sonnets and other Poems" was published; aud in 1852 appeared a volume of "Selections" from his "Writings and Speeches" (12mo., Boston.)

GARROTE, a mode of execution practised in Spain and the Spanish colonies. The criminal is seated in a chair or on a stool, and leans his head back against a support prepared for it. An iron collar closely encircles the throat. The executioner quickly turns a screw, the point of which penetrates the spinal marrow where it

unites with the brain and causes instantaneous death. Formerly the garrote was merely a cord put round the neck and suddenly tightened by the twisting of a stick inserted between the cord and the back of the prisoner's neck. Hence the name of this mode of execution, garrote in Spanish signifying stick. Its origin may probably be traced through the Moors or Arabs to the oriental punishment of the bowstring, which in its primitive style it exactly resembled. Afterward an iron collar was used by which the criminal was suddenly strangled. The piercing of the spinal marrow is a later improvement. GARTER, ORDER OF THE, the highest British order of knighthood, and one of the oldest and most illustrious of the military orders of knighthood in Europe, commonly said to have been instituted by Edward III. of England about 1350. The precise date_of_its foundation has been much disputed. In Rastel's "Chronicle" it is stated that the order was devised in 1192 by Richard I., who made 26 of his knights wear blue thongs of leather around their legs in a battle fought with the Saracens on St. George's day. In the accounts of the great wardrobe the garters of the order are first mentioned in 1348. Most writers agree that its institution dates from a tournament at Windsor, to which Edward invited the most illustrious knights. It was founded in honor of the Trinity, the Virgin Mary, St. George, and St. Edward the Confessor; and St. George, who was already the tutelar saint of England, was considered its especial patron and protector. An ancient tradition connects the emblem of the order with the story popularly told of Edward and the countess of Salisbury. When she happened at a ball to drop her garter, the king took it up and presented it to her, at the same time exclaiming, with reference to those who smiled at the action: Honi soit qui mal y pense ("Evil to him who evil thinks"). Edward added "that shortly they should see that garter advanced to so high an honor and renown as to account themselves happy to wear it." This is the common account of the origin of the emblem and motto, though others suppose them to have had reference to Edward's claim to the crown of France and to the wars in that kingdom. The original dress of knights of the garter was a blue mantle, tunic, and capuchin, cut in the fashion of the time, and all embroidered with garters of blue silk and gold, the largest of which, bearing the device, was on the left shoulder of the mantle. It was remodelled by Henry VIII., and changed for the last time by Charles II. It now consists of the garter of dark blue velvet, edged with gold and bearing the motto in golden letters, and worn on the left leg below the knee; the mantle of blue velvet, lined with white taffety, and having on the left breast the star, which is the cross of St. George irradiated with beams of silver, and encircled with the garter; the hood, of crimson velvet; the surcoat, also of crimson velvet, lined with white taffety; the hat, of black velvet, lined with white taffety, and bear

ing an ostrich and heron plume; the collar, composed of 26 pieces of gold, each in the form of a garter, and having the ground enamelled blue; the figure of St. George on horseback, encountering the dragon, appended to the collar; and the lesser St. George, enamelled on gold and set with diamonds, suspended by a dark blue ribbon over the left shoulder. The number of knights companions was originally 25 beside the sovereign, who nominates the other knights. The queen and wives of the knights at first shared the honors of the fraternity, were styled dames de la fraternité de St. George, and wore robes and hoods adorned with the garter; and an attempt to revive this ancient usage was made in the reign of Charles I. The original number of knights remained unchanged till 1786, when a statute was passed making it 26 exclusive of princes of the royal family and of illustrious foreigners on whom the honor might be conferred. By a statute of 1805 the order is to consist of the sovereign and 25 knights companions, together with such lineal descendants of George II. as may be elected. But the prince of Wales, as a constituent part of the original institution, is counted among the 25 companions. By special statutes, proclaimed at different times, foreign sovereigns and extra knights have been admitted, the latter of whom on the occurrence of vacancies always become part of the 25. The whole number at present is 41, 26 of whom are knights companions, Lord Derby having been made an extra knight after the close of his ministry in 1859. The officers of the order are a prelate, who is always the bishop of Winchester; a chancellor, formerly the bishop of Salisbury, but since 1837 the bishop of Oxford (Windsor, which is in Berkshire, having been then transferred to that diocese); a registrar, the dean of Windsor; a garter principal king-at-arms, who carries the rod and sceptre at the feast of St. George, notifies the election of new knights, and is chief of the heralds; and the usher of the black rod. The chapter meets on St. George's day (April 23) in St. George's chapel, Windsor, where the installations take place, and the banners of the knights are suspended.

GARTH, SIR SAMUEL, an English physician and poet, born in Yorkshire, died in London, Jan. 18, 1718. He studied medicine at Cambridge, and settling in London in 1693, soon secured an extensive practice, and became noted for his classical taste, liberality, and social habits. A quarrel had existed for some years between the physicians who advocated, and the apothecaries who opposed the establishment of a free dispensary for the poor. Garth sided with the former, and wrote in their support the "Dispensary," a satirical poem in imitation of Boileau's Lutrin. It was published in 1699, passed through 3 editions in a few months, and reached the 9th in 1706, having been modified and improved in each. In the heroic couplet afterward so effectively employed by Pope, and with the supernatural machinery of the ancient

epic, its dry theme is well sustained through 2,000 lines; but it is now regarded only as a literary curiosity. Garth was the leading whig physician of the time, was a member of the Kit-cat club, and the intimate associate of Addison (for whose "Cato" he wrote an epilogue), Dryden, Congreve, Swift, Pope, &c. He wrote several short poems, and superintended a translation of Ovid's "Metamorphoses" (1717), to which Dryden, Addison, Gay, and many others contributed. He translated the 14th and part of the 15th book, and wrote the preface, in which he recommends the moral purpose of the work. He was knighted by George I. in 1714. GÄRTNER, JOSEPH, a German botanist, born in Calw, Würtemberg, March 22, 1732, died July 13, 1791. He studied theology, jurisprudence, and the natural sciences at Tübingen and at Göttingen, travelled in Italy, France, England, and Holland, became professor of anatomy at Tübingen in 1761, and of botany at St. Petersburg in 1768. He returned to Calw after 2 years, where he devoted himself for the remainder of his life to the study of botany, making several long journeys for that purpose. His labors mark an era in the history of this science, since, while other botanists had proposed only the different characteristics of the flower as a basis for classification, he was the first to observe that plants are naturally divided into classes by the general plan and features of their construction. His principal work is De Fructibus et Seminibus Plantarum (Stuttgart, 1789-'91).

GAS (Sax. gast, Dutch geest, Ger. Geist, spirit), a generic term designating any elastic fluid which is neither liquefied nor solidified at ordinary temperatures and pressure. Van Helmont introduced the name, first applying it to carbonic acid generated by fermentation, which he described as a non-coagulable spirit. Boyle afterward made use of the term artificial air, and recognized different varieties of the elastic fluids. In 1757 the nature of the so called fixed air or carbonic acid was determined by Dr. Black, and the composition of other gaseous bodies was soon after investigated by the chemists, with whom this became a favorite department of research. The principal gases are described in this work under their respective names, and the physical properties of elastic fluids are treated in the article ATMOSPHERE.-In ordinary use, by the term gas is understood that mixture of inflammable elastic fluids obtained from bituminous coal or other carbonaceous substances for illuminating purposes. A natural product of similar character has been known in various countries from remote times, issuing from crevices in the earth, and appears to be the result of substances of organic origin slowly undergoing decomposition. Though the supplies of the gas appear to be inexhaustible, inasmuch as it has continued to issue at the same localities for many centuries, its source is not always in beds of coal, but frequently in formations below the coal measures. The most celebrated natural fountains of this kind are in the ter

tiary strata on the borders of the Caspian sea, described in the article BAKOO. In the western part of the state of New York they issue from the slates and sandstones of the Portage group, and the gas is so abundant and pure that it is collected in gasometers and conveyed in pipes to be used for lighting villages. The town of Fredonia has been thus illuminated for many years, and also the lighthouse at Portland harbor on Lake Erie. The Chinese have long made use of the jets of gas they struck in their salt wells, applying it as fuel in evaporating the brine, and as an illuminating agent for their buildings and streets. Instances have been noticed in the article COAL of its bursting out in penetrating beds of this material. It has also issued in copious streams from beneath great bogs when these were pierced and the boring was continued through beds of marl and sand which underlaid them. This was observed at Chatmoss, on the line of the railway between Manchester and Liverpool, in Dec. 1851. The gas rose rapidly through a 10 or 12-inch pipe sunk in the ground over the hole which tapped its source, and issuing from this at the height of 36 feet was then ignited, and burned with a yellowish flame extending upward some 8 or 9 feet. Numerous other instances of such phenomena in various countries might be referred to. The natural inflammable gas is known by various names, as light carburetted hydrogen, fire damp, and marsh gas, the last name having reference to its bubbling up through the waters covering marshy places. It possesses less carbon than the other variety of carburetted hydrogen, called olefiant gas, which is obtained in mixture with it in the process of the destructive distillation of bituminous coal, and which, with the vapors of other hydrocarbons rich in carbon, gives to the artificial product a much higher illuminating power than that of the natural gas. The peculiar qualities of this mixture will be considered after tracing out the history of the application of gas to illuminating purposes, and noticing the materials employed. The practicability of collecting the gas expelled from coal by subjecting this to heat appears to have been first discovered by Dr. Clayton, rector of Crofton, Wakefield, Yorkshire. The account of his experiments is preserved in a letter to the Hon. Robert Boyle, dated May 12, 1688, and published in the "Transactions of the Royal Society," 1739. He distilled some coal in a retort, and accidentally discovered the inflammability of the "spirit" which issued forth, bursting through the lute. He collected this spirit in bladders, which he kept, and amused his friends by puncturing them, and burning the invisible fluid as it escaped through the aperture. Dr. Hales in his work on "Vegetable Statics," 1726, describes a similar experiment he had made, and his obtaining 180 cubic inches of inflammable air from 158 grains of Newcastle coal. In 1786 Lord Dundonald of Scotland engaged in distilling coal, chiefly it appears from

In

the tar, and the next year took out a patent for the process. He constructed apparatus for burning the gas, merely, however, as a curiosity, and his workmen einployed the waste gas for giving them light. The first experiments for the direct purpose of introducing gas as an illuminating agent were made in 1792 by Mr. Murdoch, then residing at Redruth in Cornwall. In 1797 he brought his operations into public notice, and the next year fitted up an apparatus for lighting part of the manufacturing establishment of Boulton and Watt near Birmingham, with which he had become connected. A Frenchman named Le Bon was engaged about the same time in similar experiments in France; and by means of gas which he obtained from wood he succeeded in lighting and warming his house. In 1803-4 the lyceum theatre in London was lighted with gas under the direction of Mr. Winsor, one of the earliest advocates for its general introduction. 1804-15 Mr. Murdoch constructed the largest apparatus hitherto made, and lighted the mills of Messrs. Phillips and Lee at Manchester, distributing an amount of light through the building equal to that of nearly 3,000 candles. In 1813 Westminster bridge was lighted with gas, and the next year the streets also of this part of London. The manufacture was greatly improved by the researches of Dr. Henry the chemist, and by the apparatus, including the wet gas-meter, invented by Mr. Clegg, an engineer employed by Boulton and Watt. Gas from refuse oily and fatty matters was first prepared on a large scale by Mr. Taylor, who obtained a patent for the process in 1815. The manufacture was conducted at the gas works in London, Paris, and other cities; but though the gas was of superior quality, more dense than that from coal and more highly carburetted, the cost of the raw material was too great in comparison with that of coal for the business to prosper. It has of late years been successfully introduced in the United States, principally with small apparatus for single buildings, and with the employment of the cheap rosin oil. This is converted into gas, as it is dropped upon a heated surface, and, without the necessity of the purifying apparatus required for coal gas, it is conducted into the gasometer for distribution as it is required. It may be regarded as one of the most perfect, simple, and economical methods of obtaining a beautiful artificial light. Rosin itself has also been applied directly by an apparatus in which it was melted, and in this state allowed to enter the heated retort for conversion into gas. The process, however, was not an economical one. Animal matters distilled for the production of bone black evolve inflammable gases, and these have been applied to purposes of illumination by Seguin. Gas has been made from wood for some time past at the Market street bridge works in Philadelphia, and 6 retorts have been kept in use. In Germany wood gas has been employed to some extent for lighting towns. The wood, well

dried, is introduced into red-hot retorts, and the gas which is immediately given off is conveyed through the usual apparatus for purifying coal gas. Tar is obtained in large quantity, and the charcoal, which is finally removed from the retort and quenched with wet sand, is more valuable than the coke residue of the distillation of bituminous coal. In Munich retorts are used holding 90 lbs. of wood. They are freshly charged every hour and a half. The operation is conducted with great facility, and the retorts are not injured by the fire as in the coal gas manufacture. Wood gas is usually considered inferior to coal gas, from deficiency of carbon, unless passed through some liquid hydrocarbon, as naphtha, benzole, oil of turpentine, or over incandescent charcoal. Samples of gas from old field pine and from smaller second growth oak have been found, by the analyses of Dr. Wolcott Gibbs and Dr. F. A. Genth, to present the following composition:

0.580

0.663

Specific gravity of gas......... -In Philadelphia works were put in operation in 1858 designed for making gas from water, or at least obtaining from this its hydrogen, and, while in the nascent state, introducing it to carbon also in the act of separating from its combination with other substances. Steam at 20 lbs. pressure is passed through a round retort filled with incandescent wood coal, by which it is said to be decomposed and to yield 56 per cent. of hydrogen. This is immediately delivered into another red-hot retort, in which rosin or rosin oil is employed for making gas by dropping it in upon the heated surface. Illuminating gas is reported to be made by this method at the extremely low price of 48 cents per 1,000 feet, and by one report even at 36 cents; but there appears to be a difficulty in furnishing the proportion of hydrogen required, and instead of the operation regulating itself, it is found necessary to keep a man most of the time attending to the two stopcocks. Practical difficulties are experienced by the deposition of free carbon in the form of soot upon the inside of the retorts, and carbonic acid and carbonic oxide are also generated. The vapors of benzole have been advantageously employed for illumination by passing through the liquid a current of common air or of steam, which takes up and carries along the vapor, the properties of which it modifies according to the proportion of air or steam employed. (See BENZOLE.) Peat has been successfully distilled upon a large scale for the production of illuminating gas; and another material profitably employed for the same purpose at Rheims is the refuse soap water in which woollen stuffs had been worked to free them

from greasy matters. This water is bought up and brought to the gas works, and being treated with sulphuric acid the fatty matters rise to the surface, and are collected, and finally distilled. Coal gas, as before remarked, is a mixture of several gases and vapors possessing very different illuminating powers; their relative proportions in different specimens of the mixture are also very variable. The chief ingredient is the light carburetted hydrogen, which has little or no illuminating power, and may be compared to nitrogen in the atmosphere in considering the adaptation of this aëriform mixture to respiration, while the active ingredient in the air or breath (oxygen) finds its counterpart in the light-giving olefiant gas and the rich hydrocarbons of unknown number, which add their vapors to increase the illumination. Light carburetted hydrogen, when free from carbonic acid, nitrogen, and other foreign matters such as usually accompany it, consists of carbon 75 and hydrogen 25 parts in 100. Its symbol is sometimes given as CH, and sometimes C, H, the proportions of the elements in these being the same; but it is supposed by some chemists that 1 volume of the compound consists of 1 equal volume of carbon vapor and 2 of hydrogen, and by others of 2 of the former and 4 of the latter condensed into the same bulk. Hydrogen and carbonic oxide (CO) are also present in coal gas, and, like the carburetted hydrogen, act the part of diluents. Olefiant gas consists of 86 parts of carbon and 14 of hydrogen, and is expressed by the formula C, H2, or, as adopted by some, C. H. The same volume contains double the quantity of carbon that is found in light carburetted hydrogen. Its specific gravity is 0.985, while that of the last-named gas is 0.559, air being 1.000. Other hydrocarbons which yield vapors to the gas are all represented by the same general formula C, H, their difference of character resulting from the different degree of contraction which the volumes of the elements undergo in combining. This appears to consti-, tute the only difference between substances, some of which are exhibited in gaseous, some in fluid, and some in solid form; and it also accounts for the remarkable instability they all display. Some of these hydrocarbons, the vapors of which are found in coal gas, contain double the amount of carbon in a given volume that belongs to olefiant gas, and consequently possess twice the illuminating power, this being proportional to the amount of carbon, as the life-supporting power of the atmosphere is proportional to the quantity of oxygen present. But neither of these active constituents can be added indefinitely to illuminating gas or to the air without defeating the useful effect. Too much carbon involves imperfect combustion, and the richer vapors are more advantageously consumed when dispersed through a body of comparatively inactive gases. The peculiar action of those which perform this office of diluents deserves attention. Carburetted hydrogen in combustion consumes twice its volume of

oxygen, generates its own bulk of carbonic acid, and one cubic foot produces heat sufficient to raise the temperature in a room of the capacity of 2,500 cubic feet from 60° to 80.8°. Carbonic oxide consumes half its bulk of oxygen, generating its own bulk of carbonic acid, with heat sufficient from the combustion of one cubic foot to raise the temperature of the above amount of air from 60° to 66.6°. Hydrogen consumes half its bulk of oxygen, generates no carbonic acid, and one cubic foot produces heat sufficient to raise the temperature of the given amount of air from 60° to 66.4°. To produce therefore the least heat with the least vitiation of the air of the room, hydrogen is the preferable diluent. In what is known as White's hydrocarbon method of gas-making, it was supposed that the production of the most perfect mixture was approximated. The illuminating constituents are generated in as concentrated a form as possible in one retort, and the diluents, consisting principally of hydrogen, free from light carburetted hydrogen, in another. The diluents are conducted so rapidly through the retort in which the production of the illuminating gases is going on, that they are swept forward before they can be decomposed by the action of the red-hot surfaces of the retort. In this way, as stated by Dr. E. Frankland in communicating these facts to the royal institution, London, coal is frequently made to produce an increase of 200 to 300 per cent. over the usual quantity of gas, and this of 50 to 100 per cent. greater illuminating power. For some reason, however, probably the skill and care required to conduct the process, the operation has not been successfully adopted.-The quantity and quality of gas obtained from bituminous coal vary greatly with the character of the coal itself, and also with the manner in which the distillation is conducted. A poor kind of coal will not make good gas; and a large yield may be no recommendation of the process employed. Cannel is the variety of coal preferred both for the quantity and quality of the gas it affords. It is exported from England to the United States for this use, and also to Berlin. Some of the mines in Virginia and the western states furnish excellent varieties of this fuel. Where it cannot be had, the richest caking coals are used, and are probably more employed than the cannel. A ton (2,240 lbs.) of good cannel coal yields in large operations about 10,000 cubic feet of gas; and 9,000 to 9,500 feet is considered an average product from Newcastle and other good caking coals. A pound of good coal may be regarded as yielding 4 to 4 cubic feet of gas. Some still more volatile coals have been found even better adapted for gas manufacture than the cannels before known. Such are the Boghead cannel, found between Edinburgh and Glasgow, which is said to produce 13,500 feet of gas per ton, of specific gravity 0.775, and the so called Albert coal of New Brunswick. (See COAL.) In submitting the coal to the action of heat in close