sponding to the English G. Before his time musical scales commenced on A, one degree higher. (See ARETINO, GUIDO.)

GANDO, a city and kingdom in Africa, lying on both sides of the principal branch of the Niger. The city is the residence of the sultan, and lies in a narrow valley surrounded by hilly chains. It is intersected from N. to S. by the broad and shallow bed of a torrent, the borders of which are covered with luxuriant vegetation, and it is adorned with a variety of trees, among which the banana is prominent. The onion of Gando is superior in size and quality to any produced in the neighboring districts. Though a central place and favorably situated for commerce, at the time of Dr. Barth's visit (May, 1853) it was extremely dull, and its commerce was insignificant, a fact which was explained by the anarchical state of the provinces around. The inhabitants prepare cotton cloth of excellent quality, but their dyeing is much inferior to that which distinguishes the manufactures of Nupe and Kano.-The kingdom of Gando consists of several rich provinces, comprising the western half of Kebbi, Mauri or Arewa, Zaberma, Dendina, a great part of Gurma, a small portion of Borgu or Barba, a large portion of Yoruba, Yaura, and Nupe or Nyffi. Much of the territory is well inhabited, and presents a luxuriant vegetation, embracing the yam, the date, and the banana. The inhabitants are of the Foolah race, and most of them Mohammedans. The latest rulers of the kingdom have been Aba Allahi, Mohammed Wani, and Khalilu, who, when visited by Dr. Barth in 1853, was in the 18th year of his reign. Khalilu lives in almost monastic seclusion, leaving the administration in the hands of one of his brothers, and the provinces have consequently been plunged into anarchy and mutual hostilities.

GANGES, the principal river of Hindostan, rising on the S. slope of the Himalaya mountains, and falling into the bay of Bengal. Its remotest feeder is the Bhagirathi, which issues from a wall of snow, supposed to be 300 feet thick, in the territory of Gurhwal, between the mountains St. Patrick, St. George, and the Pyramid, at an elevation of 13,000 feet above the sea. Thence it flows N. W. to Bhairogathi, where it is joined by the Jahnuvi, a considerably larger stream than itself, and bends westward and then S. W. At Sookhee, in lat. 30° 59' N., long. 78° 45′ E., it breaks through the Himalaya proper at an elevation of 7,608 feet, its average descent from its source having been 70 feet per mile, though to Bhairogathi it is 255 feet. Its general course is then S. W., S., and S. E., to Deoprag or Devaprayaga, in lat. 30° 8', long. 78° 39', where, 120 m. from its source, it receives the large river Aluknunda, and first takes the name of Ganges. Thence it flows W. and S. W., receiving on the right the Sooswa, and on the left the Nyar, to Hurdwar, 47 m. Its direction is now nearly S. for about 130 m.; thence S. E., receiving about midway the Ramgunga on the left and the Kallee Nuddee on the

right, 368 m. to Allahabad, where it is joined by the Jumna on the right. Down to this point it is full of shoals and rapids, and in many places fordable, though navigable by small boats from Hurdwar, and by passenger steamers from Ghurmuckteesur, 393 m. above Allahabad. From the latter place its course is generally E. for about 500 m. to Sikrigalee, and thence the main stream flows S. E. to its mouth. At Manjhee, 270 m. below Allahabad, it receives the Gogra; 18 m. below this, the Sone; 20 m. further down the Gunduck, and 160 m. further the Coosy. At Seebgunge, 95 m. from the mouth of the Coosy, and 563 from Allahabad, it sends off to the S. a large branch called the Bhagruttee, and 70 m. lower down another called the Jellinghee, which two offsets unite and form the Hoogly, considered by the Brahmins the true channel of the sacred river. The main stream below the divergence of the two feeders of the Hoogly is known as the Podda or Ganges. It throws off several branches, among which are the Konaie, the principal outlet of the Bramapootra, and the Kirtynassa, and 65 m. below the latter it unites with the Meghna, which carries its remaining waters to the sea, its mouth being in lat. 23° 52′ N., long. 89° 45' E. The total length of the Ganges, reckoning from the source of the Bhagirathi in Gurhwal, is 1,514 m. to the mouth of the Hoogly, or 1,557 to the mouth of the Meghna. Of the vast number of channels which form its delta only the Meghna and its branch the Chundna are navigable by large craft at all seasons to the main stream. The waters of the Ganges generally rise from the end of May to September, when the lower parts of Bengal, for a width of 100 m., are completely inundated. The rise at Calcutta is about 7 feet, and at Benares and Allahabad 30 or 45. general width of the river, according to Capt. Prinsep, is "very unequal, but may be reckoned to average a mile in the dry season on its whole course through the plains, and two miles in the freshes." The average discharge of water, according to Rennell, is in the dry season 80,000 cubic feet per second, and in the wet season 405,000 cubic feet. The Ganges brings down great quantities of earthy matter, and its course at intervals is obstructed by extensive shoals. Large tracts of land are sometimes swept away by the current in a single season, and remarkable changes are thus frequently made in the channel. The Ganges is universally regarded by the Hindoos as a sacred stream, and its waters are carried great distances to be employed in ceremonial ablutions; they are also used to swear by in courts of justice. There are particular places, however, which are held more holy than the rest, and these are resorted to by great numbers of pilgrims. The country watered by this river is one of the finest in the world, abounding in every kind of vegetable product suited to that region, and adorned with beautiful scenery. The principal cities and towns on its banks are Furruckabad, Cawnpore, Allahabad, Benares,

The

Ghazeepoor, Patna, Bahar, and Moorshedabad. Calcutta and Hoogly are on the Hoogly.-The Ganges canal, designed both for the irrigation of the Doab and for purposes of navigation, now in course of construction, will be when completed one of the grandest works of the kind in the world. The main line extends from Hurdwar to Allyghur, where it branches, one division leading to Cawnpore and the other to Humeerpoor, and 3 lesser channels diverge to Futtehghur, Coel, and Bolundshahur. The whole work when completed will be 810 m. long, 525 m. of which were opened in 1854.

GANGLION, in anatomy, a small rounded or elongated nervous mass, of a reddish gray color, situated in the course of the nerves. There are 2 kinds of nervous ganglia, one forming part of the cranial system of nerves, the other part of the sympathetic system; the first kind are situated near the origins of many of the cranial and of all the vertebral nerves, and on the posterior or sensory root of the latter; the second are generally placed along the sides of the anterior surface of the spinal column, from the head to the coccyx, the 2 great semilunar and cardiac ganglia coming near the median line. They are composed of 2 substances, one white like the medullary substance of the brain, the other reddish gray, somewhat resembling the cerebral cortical substance; the internal medullary filaments are the continuation of the nerve upon which the ganglion is situated. The nervous system of ganglia is considered by some as a series of more or less independent centres, giving off nerves to the organs of nutrition or communicating branches to the cerebro-spinal system; according to others, these ganglia and their associated nerves form a special system with numerous ramifications, the sympathetic system presiding over the involuntary contractions of the heart and digestive apparatus, and all the processes concerned in secretion, nutrition, and exhalation, and in disease conveying different sympathetic phenomena from one part of the organism to another. Strictly speaking, all the nervous centres in the highest vertebrates may be called ganglia; even the hemispheres of the human brain may properly be styled cerebral ganglia. The principal ganglia of the head are the ophthalmic, which sends branches to the iris and the vascular apparatus of the eyeball; the otic, intimately connected with the organ of hearing; Meckel's or the spheno-palatine, ministering to the senses of smell and taste; the submaxillary, whose branches proceed almost entirely to the gland of that name; the Gasserian, of the 5th pair of nerves; and those near the roots of the pneumogastric and glossopharyngeal. In the neck are the superior, middle, and inferior ganglia of the sympathetic, and the origins of the cardiac plexus which supplies the heart; in the chest, the 12 thoracic ganglia on each side, from which originate the splanchnic nerves which go to form the semilunar ganglia or solar plexus; in the abdomen, the latter sends

branches which accompany all the divisions of the aorta; there are beside these the lumbar and sacral ganglia on each side of the spine, distributing their branches to the organs in the pelvis. The so called lymphatic ganglia are glandular, and not nervous masses. In the invertebrata ganglia are the highest forms of nervous centres, and occur either isolated or connected together by single or double longitudinal cords; they perform the functions both of the cerebral and spinal centres of the higher animals. In surgery, a ganglion is a small indolent fluctuating tumor, developed in the course of the tendons, containing a semi-fluid secretion inclosed in a cyst generally communicating with the tendinous sheath. It is a dropsy of the synovial sheath, caused by friction, some wrench or tension of the tendon, or the sequence of some rheumatic or gouty disease; the light of a candle may be seen through it. The most common situation is about the wrist and fingers, though it may occur in the course of any tendon. When there is no inflammation, the best treatment is to puncture the tumor by the subcutaneous method, in order that the contained fluid may escape into the surrounding areolar tissue and be absorbed; pressure and cold applications should then be applied. If this fail, stimulating liniments and even blisters may be tried, to induce absorption. When unconnected with a tendinous sheath, the tumor may be dissected out, punctured like an abscess, or transfixed with a seton; the subsequent thickness may be removed by the vapor or steam bath and douche; any rheumatic taint requires to be corrected by appropriate remedies. A popular way of treating these tumors is to rupture them by a strong and sudden blow; those on the back of the wrist and hand may thus be scattered without danger.

GANGRENE, the loss of life in any of the soft parts of the body, without extinction of the vital powers in the rest of the organism. The term sphacelus has been applied to the condition in which gangrene may terminate, the utter and irrecoverable death of a part, while in some stages of gangrene the circulation may not be completely arrested, the sensibility of the nerves not entirely gone, and recovery of the local loss of action not impossible. The death of the bony tissue is called necrosis. When gangrene is the consequence of violent inflammation or of the obstructed return of venous blood, the affected parts are gorged with fluid, constituting humid gangrene; while dry gangrene generally arises from a deficient supply of arterial blood or from constitutional causes, accompanied by very slight or by no inflammation, the mortified part becoming dry and hard; the gangrenous portion in the former case is called a slough, in the latter an eschar. The local predisposing causes are congestion and deficient circulation; the constitutional are weakness from disease, old age, or misery. The exciting causes are mechanical and chemical injuries, especially gun-shot, lacer

ated, and poisoned wounds; insufficient supply of arterial or obstructed return of venous blood, as in the gangrene from ossified arteries in the first case and that from heart disease and varicose veins in the second; and injury or division of nerves. The areolar tissue is most subject to gangrene; after this come tendons and ligaments, denuded bone, the skin, and the mus cles, in the order of enumeration. Gangrene spreads slowly or rapidly, according to the accompanying inflammation or the energy of the vital processes. When inflammation is about to end in gangrene, the redness becomes livid, with diminution of pain and sensibility, though the swelling may be increased; the parts become soft and cold, and emit an odor of decomposition; the livid color, when the disease is spreading, is gradually lost in the surrounding skin, but when the dead portion is to be cast off, a bright red line separates the healthy from the gangrenous tissue, called the "line of demarcation;" in a healthy person there may be high accompanying fever, but in a debilitated constitution the symptoms will be those of prostration and typhoid. The indications of treatment are to diminish the inflammation by general and local depletion; to support the strength by tonics and stimulants, when the gangrene is extensive or the system debilitated; to quiet restlessness and nervous irritability by opium; and to facilitate the separation of the dead parts by warm and stimulating applications, and by incisions to permit the free escape of fluids whose absorption might propagate the disease to internal vital organs. Amputation of a limb is sometimes the only way of arresting the spread of gangrene. Surgery often has occasion to produce gangrene as a remedial measure, in the removal of tumors and diseased growths; hemorrhoidal swellings, nasal and uterine polypi, erectile tumors, cancerous growths, &c., are effectually and safely removed by cutting off their supply of blood by ligature of the principal vessels. Gangrene is always a dangerous symptom, especially in very young or very old persons, and in weakened constitutions; and when terminating favorably, it may leave behind it tedious suppurations, fistulous ulcers, and various deformities. Hospital gan grene, or sloughing phagedona, a putrid disease caused by crowding sick and wounded men into ill-ventilated and dirty rooms, is one of the most terrible accompaniments of war, often destroying more than the bullet and the sword; and the army surgeon generally finds his best directed efforts set at defiance by the force of surrounding and insurmountable obstacles; the principles of treatment are the same as in ordinary gangrene.

GANGUE (Germ. Gang, a vein), the matrix or veinstone of ores. These are always included in some stony matter, which forms the principal portion of the veins or beds which are worked for the sake of their metalliferous contents. Quartz is the most common veinstone, and has been called the mother of ores. Calca

reous spar is also a frequent predominant material of veins. Sulphate of barytes or heavy spar, and fluor spar, are also often found as gangues.

GANJAM, a district of the Madras presidency, British India, bounded N. and N. W. by Orissa, S. E. by the bay of Bengal, and S. W. by the district of Vizagapatam; area, 5,728 sq. m.; pop. 926,930. The coast is bold, rocky, and destitute of large harbors, though coasting vessels can anchor within the mouths of some of the rivers. The most important streams are the Chicacole, Callingapatam, and Rasikoila, all of which are dry during part of the year. A range of hills runs through the district from S. W. to N. E., in many places approaching close to the shore, in others receding a few miles, and in the N. part leaving between it and the coast a wide sandy plain, in which, partly in this district, but mostly in Orissa, lies the lake of Chilka, 42 m. long, 15 m. broad, and only 6 feet deep. The climate, during the hot and part of the rainy season, is unhealthy. The soil in general is productive, and the staples are rice, maize, sugar cane, millet, pulse, oil seeds, wax, lac, gums, dye stuffs, arrow root, and a little cotton for domestic use. Valuable ornamental woods are found. The only manufactures are coarse cottons and muslins, which have greatly declined since the general introduction of European fabrics. Ganjam is one of the 5 districts formerly called the Northern Circars, of which the French obtained possession in 1753, and passed into British hands only after a violent contest between the British and French, which was decided by Clive in 1759. The principal towns are Ganjam, Chicacole, Russelkondah, and Guntoor, the last of which acquired some notoriety about 1840-'45, in connection with the Meriah sacrifices practised by the Khoonds of the frontier. Young human victims, in great numbers, were immolated to propitiate a divinity presiding over the fertility of the earth, and so wedded were this barbarous tribe to their horrible rites that the sacrifices were only abolished by vigorous military operations.

GANNAL, JEAN NICOLAS, a French chemist, born in Saar-Louis, July 28, 1791, died in Paris, Jan. 1852. After being employed at a drug shop, he was in 1808 attached as an apothecary to the medical department of the French army. In 1816 he became the chemical assistant of Thénard in his lectures at the Sorbonne. Industrial pursuits and useful inventions afterward engaged his attention, in which he was very successful. He invented a new kind of chimney, the first elastic rollers for the printing press, the refining of borax, a new method for melting and hardening tallow employed in making candles, &c. In 1827 he received the Montyon prize from the institute for his system of chloric inhalation for catarrh. He is best known, however, by his process for embalming bodies, the first public experiments in which were made in 1833, and for which he received the same

prize. It consists in injecting a solution of sulphate of aluminum into the carotid artery. GANNET, a web-footed bird, of the family sulida and genus sula (Briss.). The genus is characterized by a bill longer than the head, strong, straight, and broad at the base; the sides compressed and grooved toward the tip, which is slightly curved, with the lateral margins obliquely and unequally serrated; the nostrils basal, linear, in a lateral groove, and almost invisible; the wings long and pointed, the 1st and 2d quills longest; the tail long and graduated; the tarsi short and stout, rounded in front and keeled behind; the toes long, all 4 connected by a full membrane; the claws moderate and rather flat, the middle one serrated, and the hind one rudimentary; beneath the lower mandible is a naked sac, capable of moderate distention. There are about 10 species described, in various parts of the world, of which 2 are natives of the western hemisphere, the booby (S. fiber, Linn.), treated under its own title, and the gannet, or solan goose (S. bassana, Briss.). The gannets are usually found in immense numbers on desert and rocky islands near the mainland, migrating southward in small parties on the approach of cold weather; they sometimes float lightly on the sea, but are generally seen on the wing; their flight is powerful, rapid, buoyant, and long sustained; their food consists of fishes which swim near the surface, upon which they dart headlong from a considerable height, making a great splash, and sometimes remain ing under water a minute or two; they swallow the fish head foremost, and their gullet is so expansible as to take in the largest herring. The common gannet (S. bassana, Briss.) has a close dense plumage, of a general whitish color, buff yellow on the head and hind neck, and primaries brownish black; the bill is pale bluish gray; bare space about the eye and on the neck blackish blue; iris white. The length to end of tail is 40 inches, to end of wings 38, the extent of wings about 6 feet, and the bill 4 inches; the weight is 7 lbs. The female is like the male, but smaller. The young are brown and white above, and grayish white below. This species breeds in great numbers on the rocky islands near the coast of Labrador, and after the breeding season, in May and June, is found all along the Atlantic states to the gulf of Mexico; it is entirely maritime, and never seen inland unless forced in by violent gales. The flight, when travelling, is low, performed by 30 or 40 flaps of the wings, and then by sailing for an equal distance with extended neck; the walk is exceeding ly slow and awkward. The nest is a hole in the earth surrounded by weeds and sticks matted together for a height of 10 to 20 inches, and only a single pure white egg, about 3 inches long, is laid in it; the young are hatched in about a month; the males assist in incubation. They congregate on the same rock in vast numbers, and are quarrelsome during incubation, being fond of stealing from each other the materials for the nests, which are sometimes brought a distance of 30

miles. A young gannet, with its large head, closed eyes, thin neck, small wings, large abdomen, naked skin, and bluish black color, is a most uncouth and disagreeable object. When shot at or wounded, gannets disgorge their food like vultures. They have very few enemies among birds or beasts; the eggs and young are sometimes devoured by the larger gulls. According to Audubon, the feathers on the lower parts are very convex externally, giving the appearance of light shell work.

GANNETT, EZRA STILES, D.D., an American clergyman, born in Cambridge, Mass., May 4, 1801. He studied at Phillips academy, Andover, entered Harvard college in 1816, and was graduated in 1820; studied the three following years in the divinity school at Cambridge; received ordination as colleague with William Ellery Channing, June 30, 1824; and, with the interruption of 2 years' absence in Europe on account of ill health, he has continued pastor of the Federal street church in Boston for more than a third of a century. Beside publishing many occasional discourses at the request of his audience, and editing the "Monthly Miscellany" from 1844 to 1849, he was associated with Dr. A. Lamson in the care of the "Christian Examiner," the principal periodical of the Unitarian denomination in the United States. Dr. Gannett has been among the foremost in the religious and benevolent enterprises of his denomination, in which he holds an eminent rank for his devotion to pastoral duty, his fervid eloquence, and his conservative theological tendencies.

GANOIDS (Gr. paros, splendor), in Müller's classification, an order of fishes having either enamelled scales, bony plates, or a naked skin; fins generally, but not always, covered anteriorly by spiny plates (fulcra); the internal skeleton sometimes osseous, as in the gar pike, or partly cartilaginous, as in the sturgeons; the vertebral column occasionally extending to the end of the upper caudal lobe; nasal apertures double; gills free and lying in an operculated cavity, with or without an opercular gill, a pseudo-branchia, and blowing holes; the arterial trunk always with numerous valves; no decussation of the optic nerves, and the ventral fins abdominal; there is always an air bladder, and a duct communicating with the oesophagus; the eggs are conveyed from the abdominal cavity by tubes; like the shark family, they have a thymus gland, and often a spiral valvular fold in the intestine. Müller divides the ganoids into 4 families: 1, containing the American gar fish; 2, the polypterus of Africa; 3, the amia, or mud fish of America; and 4, the sturgeons. These will be described under the 1st, 3d, and 4th titles respectively. Prof. Agassiz is inclined to elevate the ganoids from an order to a class, separate from ordinary bony fishes and superior to them in organization, though inferior to the selachians (sharks and rays); he makes them the 3d class of the branch vertebrata, with the 3 orders of cœlacanths, acipenseroids (sturgeons), and sau