don exhibition in 1851, that 1,300,000,000 caps were manufactured yearly for sporting guns in Europe, which involved a consumption of 396,000 lbs. of copper.-Fulminating silver (2Ag O, Cy2 O2) is prepared like fulminating mercury, except that the mercury is replaced by fine silver, and the nitric acid solution is allowed to become cool before it is turned into the alcohol. Or it may be made by introducing finely pulverized nitrate of silver into concentrated alcohol contained in a matrass, and after shaking it well adding as much fuming nitric acid as there was alcohol. On boiling, the nitrate of silver is first dissolved, then decomposed, and a flocculent precipitate separates, which is formed of an agglomeration of little needles of fulminate of silver. When this ceases to form, water is added, and the mixture is filtered, the washing being continued till there is no further acid reaction. The precipitate is then cautiously dried. This compound is so extremely dangerous that its manufacture ought to be entirely abandoned. It is used only for explosive toys, which are made of little glass balls of the size of peas, into which the fulminate is introduced in a moist state and dried. They are enveloped in a bit of blotting paper, and when used are exploded by throwing them upon the ground. Mr. Guthrie mentions his having suffered severely from explosions in his experiments; and in 1832 Dr. Robert Hare was dangerously injured by the explosion of a quantity of the feathery fulminate, which was nearly enough to fill an ounce bottle. It ignited as he was in the act of pouring it out upon the face of a hammer, as he had frequently done before. The explosion could be accounted for only on the supposition that a particle of the powder might have been compressed between the neck of the vial and the face of the hammer. Three fingers of his right hand were broken, and his assistant and a pupil were also injured. An English chemist named Hennel is reported to have been not long since killed by the explosion of about half a pound of the fulminate. He was torn in pieces, and his limbs were thrown in different directions. It is recommended never to keep the fulminates in glass vials, but in pasteboard cases, covered loosely with a card. They have been known to explode spontaneously, from no other cause apparently than a jarring motion in the room crowding the particles more closely together. An interesting paper by Prof. William H. Ellet upon the compound of cyanogen, including the fulminating salts, may be found in the "American Journal of Science" for July, 1830.-A compound is described as fulminating powder, into the composition of which fulminic acid does not enter. It is a mixture of 3 parts of nitre, 2 of dry carbonate of potash, and 1 of sulphur, the materials to be ground together in a warm mortar. If placed on a shovel over a fire, the compound melts at a temperature of about 330° and violently explodes. Another similar explosive mixture consists of 1 part of yellow prussiate of potash, 2 of chlorate of potash,

and 1 of sugar well dried, the whole to be ground and then intimately mixed.

FULMINIC ACID, one of the isomeric modifications of cyanic acid, represented by the formula Cya O2, 2HO. Its compounds are distinguished for their explosive character, in which they differ from those of cyanic acid. All attempts to obtain it in an isolated condition have failed from its tendency to instantaneous decomposition with explosion.

FULTON, the name of counties in several of the United States. I. An E. co. of New York, drained by Sacandaga river and E. Canada creek; area, about 530 sq. m.; pop. in 1855, 23,284. The soil is fertile and the surface uneven, with several mountainous elevations. The productions in 1855 were 33,903 tons of hay, 11,145 bushels of wheat, 355,855 of oats, 155,733 of Indian corn, 182,964 of potatoes, and 840,397 lbs. of butter. There were 9 grist mills, 3 paper mills, 90 saw mills, 2 woollen factories, 25 tanneries, 1 brick yard, 5 lime factories, 2 newspaper offices, 109 school houses, and 39 churches. Assessed value of real estate in 1856, $3,862,000. The N. Y. central railroad passes near the S. boundary of the county. Formed from Montgomery co. in 1838, and named in honor of Robert Fulton. Capital, Johnstown. II. A S. co. of Penn., bordering on Maryland, and drained by Conoloway and Licking creeks, tributaries of the Potomac ; area, 380 sq. m.; pop. in 1850, 7,567. Its E. boundary is formed by Cove mountain; Sideling hill lies on its W. frontier, and between the two are fertile valleys. The uplands produce timber, which forms one of the chief staples. Tan bark, hay, and grain are also exported. The productions in 1850 were 83,758 bushels of wheat, 50,835 of Indian corn, 49,075 of oats, 4,752 tons of hay, 100,260 lbs. of butter, and 13,094 of wool. There were 18 corn and flour mills, 5 saw mills, 3 wool-carding mills, 10 tanneries, 1 newspaper office, 20 churches, and 1,570 pupils attending public schools. county was formed from Bedford co. in 1848. Capital, McConnellsburg. III. A N. co. of Ark., bordering on Missouri, and drained by the N. fork of White river; area, 860 sq. m.; pop. in 1854, 2,269, of whom 65 were slaves. It has a hilly surface and a good soil, suitable for grain and pasturage. The productions in 1854 were 52,071 bushels of Indian corn, 3,667 of wheat, 11,538 of oats, and 30 bales of cotton. Capital, Pilot Hill. IV. A S. W. co. of Ky., bounded S. by Tennessee, and separated from Missouri on the W. and N. W. by the Mississippi river; area, about 200 sq. m.; pop. in 1850, 4,446, of whom 943 were slaves. The surface is somewhat diversified, and the soil generally fertile. The principal exports are tobacco, grain, and live stock. The productions in 1850 were 236,315 bushels of Indian corn, 25,494 of oats, 222,482 lbs. of tobacco, and 4,209 of wool. There were 2 grist mills, 1 saw mill, 1 tannery, 1

The

newspaper office, 7 churches, and 278 pupils attending public and other schools. The county

is traversed by the Mobile and Ohio railroad. Capital, Hickman. Taken from Hickman co. in 1845. V. A N. W. co. of Ohio, bordering on Michigan, drained by Tiffin's river, a branch of the Maumee; area, about 337 sq. m.; pop. in 1850, 7,781. It has an undulating surface and a fertile soil, suitable for grain and pasturage. The productions in 1850 were 81,847 bushels of wheat, 136,310 of Indian corn, 53, 735 of oats, 10,490 tons of hay, and 153,404 lbs. of butter. There were 2 flour mills, 12 saw mills, and 5 churches. The county is traversed by the northern Indiana air line railroad from Toledo to Chicago. Capital, Ottokee. VI. A N. co. of Ind., drained by Tippecanoe river; area, 366 sq. m.; pop. in 1850, 5,982. It has a level surface, occupied partly by prairies, partly by oak openings, and partly by forests. Iron is found in some localities, and the streams furnish abundant water power. The soil is mostly of good quality, suitable for grain. In 1850 it produced 221,761 bushels of Indian corn, 70,757 of wheat, 32,843 of oats, and 4,637 tons of hay. The county contained 11 churches, and 1,200 pupils attending public schools. Organized in 1836. Capital, Rochester. VII. A W. co. of Ill., bounded S. E. by the Illinois river, and drained by Spoon river; area, 870 sq. m.; pop. in 1855, 27,968; in 1858, about 30,000. The Illinois river, which is here navigable, is the channel of a large export trade. Spoon river is valuable for water power, and nearly all the streams are bordered by a good growth of timber. The soil of the county is rich and well cultivated; the surface is undulating, and occupied partly by prairies, partly by woodlands. Coal is found in abundance. The productions in 1850 were 1,430,717 bushels of Indian corn, 274,479 of wheat, 178,734 of oats, 83,791 lbs. of wool, and 302,029 of butter. In 1858 there were 40 churches, several newspaper offices, and over 4,000 pupils attending public schools. The Peoria and Oquawka railroad runs near the northern boundary, and another line has been projected which will intersect the county E. and W., connecting the Mississippi and Illinois rivers. Capital, Lewistown.

FULTON. I. A post town of Hamilton co., Ohio; pop. in 1850, 3,224. It is a suburb of Cincinnati, and is situated just above that city on the Ohio river, having a water front of about 2 m., and extending back a few hundred yards to a ridge of lofty hills from which is obtained a great quantity of excellent limestone. The principal business of the place is steamboat building. Beside numerous boat yards, steam saw mills, lumber yards, &c., it contains a dry dock, a rolling mill, and several churches. II. A post village and the capital of Callaway co., Mo., 12 m. from the Missouri river, and 20 m. N. E. of Jefferson City; pop. in 1850, about 500. It is extensively engaged in the manufacture of earthenware, and contains a newspaper office, several churches and academies, an asylum for the deaf and dumb, and the state lunatic asylum. The last is a beautiful edifice, 5

stories high and 210 feet long, established in 1848 on a plot of 460 acres given together with $12,000 by the people of the county.

FULTON, ROBERT, an American inventor and civil engineer, celebrated for the successful introduction of steam navigation, of Irish descent, born at Little Britain, Lancaster co., Penn., in 1765, died in New York, Feb. 24, 1815. When about 3 years old he lost his father. He received a common school education, went to Philadelphia at the age of 17, and his name appears in the directory of that city for 1785 as that of a miniature painter. Mechanical pursuits, however, even in his youth mingled with those of the artist. Before attaining his majority he had laid by a sum sufficient to buy a small farm in Washington co. He placed his mother in possession of his new purchase, and soon afterward met gentlemen who were attracted by his talent and advised him to go to England and place himself under the tuition of Benjamin West. Following this advice, he met with a very kind reception from West, of whose home he remained an inmate for several years. On leaving his family, Fulton commenced a tour for the purpose of examining the treasures of art scattered through the country residences of the English nobility, and remained for two years in Devonshire, where he made the acquaintance of the duke of Bridgewater, the founder of the canal system of Great Britain, at whose instance, it has been said, Fulton abandoned the profession of a painter and adopted that of a civil engineer. He was employed at Birmingham about 18 months, probably in some subordinate capacity upon the canal then in progress in that vicinity. With Earl Stanhope he had an earlier and more intimate acquaintance. This nobleman was a mechanical projector of no inconsiderable pretensions, and at this time was engaged on a scheme of steam navigation by a propeller modelled on the foot of a water fowl. Fulton addressed him a letter in 1793 in which he stated the objections to this plan, and suggested some of the views which he afterward reduced to practice on the Hudson. At Birmingham he was brought into communication with Watt, who had just succeeded in his great improvement of the steam engine, with the structure of which Fulton made himself entirely familiar. During his residence here he devised an improved mill for sawing marble, for which he received a vote of thanks and an honorary medal from the British society for the promotion of arts and commerce. To this period also are referred his patented machines for spinning flax and for making ropes, and the invention of an excavator for scooping out the channels of canals and aqueducts. In 1795 he contributed some essays on the subject of canals to the London "Morning Star," and in the spring of 1796 published in London his treatise on the improvement of canal navigation. His views on the subject did not prove to be of any practical utility. With this treatise he published a

letter to the governor of his native state, pointing out the advantages of canals over turnpike roads; and sent a copy of the work to President Washington, who returned him a flattering acknowledgment. Having obtained a patent in England for canal improvements, Fulton went to France with the view of introducing them there, but his attention was soon diverted to other objects. In 1797 he took up his residence at Paris with Mr. Joel Barlow, with whom he formed a most intimate friendship, which continued through life. With Mr. Barlow he remained 7 years, during which he devoted himself to the study of the modern languages, and the sciences connected with his profession. At this time he devised the submarine boat, afterward styled a nautilus, connected with which were machines, then called submarine bombs, afterward known as torpedoes. This invention he offered several times to the French government, and once to the Dutch ambassador at Paris, without exciting their favorable attention. Negotiations were subsequently opened with him by the British government, which induced him to visit London in May, 1804. Here he had interviews with Mr. Pitt and Lord Mellville, and explained to them the nature of his invention. Mr. Pitt was polite enough to say that if introduced into practice the torpedo could not fail to annihilate all military marines, but Lord Melville condemned the nautilus without a moment's consideration. In June a commission was appointed to examine Mr. Fulton's projects, at the head of which was Sir Joseph Banks. Many weeks elapsed before they gave any attention to the subject, and they then reported the submarine boat as impracticable. In Oct. 1805, he was permitted to experiment on a Danish brig of 200 tons burden with a carcass of 170 lbs. of powder. In 15 minutes from the application of the carcass the explosion took place; the brig, according to Fulton's account, making no more resistance than a bag of feathers, and going to pieces like a shattered egg shell. Notwithstanding this success, Fulton was disappointed in his hopes of government patronage, and at length embarked for his native country. Previous to leaving France, Fulton had superintended the execution of the plates of the splendid edition of the "Columbiad," printed in Philadelphia in 1807, expending on it some $5,000; whence he derived a pecuniary interest in the work, which he relinquished by will to the widow of Mr. Barlow. The original paintings from which these plates were executed formed a part of the valuable collection he left to his family. On his return he brought with him a family piece representing Mr. West and his wife, and a portrait of himself, all from the pencil of that celebrated artist, with his "Ophelia" and "King Lear," which Fulton had purchased at a sale by the royal academy in 1805. In Dec. 1806, he arrived in New York, and immediately devoted himself to the development and introduction of his plans for sub

marine war and steam navigation. In the month after landing he went to Washington with his models and drawings, which he explained to the heads of departments, and made a favorable impression. A certain expenditure was authorized by the government to prosecute the experiments with his torpedoes. The probability of a rupture with England, consequent on the affair of the Leopard and Chesapeake, made the summer of 1807 propitious to the patronage of his project, and on July 20 he "decomposed" a large hulk brig in the harbor of New York with a torpedo containing 70 lbs. of powder. In 1810 he again visited Washington, and at Kalorama, the seat of his friend Barlow, explained some improvements in his plans to Mr. Jefferson, Mr. Madison, and a number of members of congress assembled on his invitation. So successful was he in his explanations that congress at once appropriated $5,000 for further experiments, to be prosecuted under the direction of the navy department. In the months of Sept. and Oct. commissioners appointed by the secretary met several times in the harbor of New York to report on Fulton's experiments. The sloop of war Argus had been prepared to defend herself against them under the orders of Commodore Rodgers, and the result was that she was so ingeniously defended that all Fulton's means of attack proved unavailing. Various reports were made by the commissioners, but Commodore Rodgers did not hesitate to decide peremptorily against Mr. Fulton's system, and to pronounce every part of it wholly impracticable. Fulton continued to believe in it, but on the conclusion of these experiments found himself too fully occupied with other pursuits to renew them. At an early period Fulton's attention had been turned to steam navigation. In Sept. 1793, he had addressed a letter to Earl Stanhope, proposing to communicate to him the principle of an invention "respecting the moving of ships by the means of steam." While domiciliated with Barlow at Paris he formed the acquaintance of Chancellor Livingston, then U. S. minister to France. Livingston had previously been connected with Nicholas Roosevelt and John Stevens in steamboat experiments at home. He now entered into the views of Fulton as they had been explained to Stanhope, and at once offered to provide the necessary funds for an experiment, and to contract for the introduction of the new method, if successful, into the United States. In 1798 an act was passed by the legislature of New York, repealing the act of 1787 in favor of John Fitch, and transferring to Mr. Livingston the exclusive privilege of navigating the waters of the state by steam, on condition that he should within a twelvemonth give proof of his having built a boat of 20 tons capable of a mean progress in Hudson river of 4 miles an hour, and at no time omit for one year to have a boat of this construction plying between Albany and New York. This act was from time to time continued, and Fulton was

finally included within its provisions. Meanwhile his experiments had been going on in France, particularly at Plombières, in the summer of 1802. Late in 1803 Fulton constructed a working model of his intended boat, and at the same time commenced building a vessel 66 feet in length and 8 feet in width. When finished, it did not move with the speed that was expected. In the same year, however, he sent an order to Watt and Boulton for a steam engine to propel a boat of large size, which was completed and reached New York in 1806. Eminently practical and sagacious, Fulton had meanwhile informed himself of every thing that had been attempted in steam navigation in Europe and the United States. His object was success, and there is no reason to believe that he would peril it by omitting to learn the cause of prior failures. He planned for the new machinery a boat that was completed and fitted in 1807 and named Clermont. Its progress through the waters of the Hudson is stated at 5 miles an hour. In the course of the ensuing winter it was enlarged to a boat of 140 feet keel and 16 feet beam. So completely was the utility of the invention established that the legislature contracted to extend the exclusive privilege of Mr. Livingston and Mr. Fulton 5 years for every additional boat, provided the whole term should not exceed 30 years. His second large boat on the Hudson was the Car of Neptune, built in 1807. In the following year the legislature passed another act, confirmatory of the prior grants, and giving new remedies to the grantees for any invasion of them, and subjecting to forfeiture any vessel propelled by steam which should enter the waters of the state without their license. In 1809 Fulton obtained his first patent from the United States; and in 1811 he took out a second patent for some improvement in his boats and machinery. His patents were limited to the simple means of adapting paddle wheels to the axle of the crank of Watt's engine. Meanwhile the power of the legislature to grant the steamboat monopoly was denied, and a company was formed at Albany to establish another line of steam passage boats on the Hudson, between that city and New York. The state grantees filed a bill in equity, and prayed for an injunction, which was refused by Chancellor Lansing on the ground that the act of the state legislature was repugnant to the constitution of the United States and against common right. This decree was unanimously reversed by the court of errors, and a compromise was effected with the Albany company by an assignment to them of a right to employ steam on the waters of Lake Champlain. Legislative aid was in the meanwhile again invoked, and an act was passed directing peremptorily the allowance of an injunction on the prayer of the state grantees, and the seizure of any hostile boat at the commencement of the suit. Litigation was thus effectually arrested in New York, though by an arbitrary and unconstitutional enactment, and the waters of the state remained in the exclusive

possession of Fulton and his partner during the lifetime of the former. A similar controversy with Col. Aaron Ogden of New Jersey was compromised by advantageous concessions, which converted the opponent of the monopoly into its firmest friend, and left him some years afterward the defeated party in the famous suit of Gibbons and Ogden in the supreme court of the United States. Pending these controversies, Fulton constructed ferry boats to run between New York and New Jersey, one for a Brooklyn company, a boat for Long Island sound, 5 for the Hudson river, and several boats for steamboat companies in different parts of the United States, some of them for the Ohio and Mississippi rivers. In 1811 he was made one of the commissioners appointed by the legislature to explore the route of an inland navigation from the Hudson river to the lakes; and in 1814 he addressed a letter to the president of the board illustrating the advantages of the proposed canal. He also joined the other commissioners in their report to the legislature of that year. In the same year he took out a patent for several improvements in the art of maritime warfare. In 1814 congress by law authorized the president to build and employ one or more floating batteries for coast defence, and Fulton was appointed the engineer. He commenced immediately the construction of a war steamer, which was launched within 4 months, and was styled by the constructor the Demologos, though it was afterward named Fulton the First. This first war steamer was a heavy and unwieldy mass, which obtained a speed against the current of some 2 miles an hour; but as the pioneer of the steam navies of the world it was regarded as a marvel, and as a most formidable engine of defence. The war having terminated before her completion, she was taken to the navy yard at Brooklyn, where she was used as a receiving ship till June 4, 1829, when she was accidentally blown up. While engaged in the construction of this war steamer, Fulton was employed by the president upon an improved modification of his submarine boat, which was also arrested by his death. Attending as a witness before the legislature of New Jersey in Jan. 1815, on an attempt made by Livingston to procure a repeal of the retaliatory act of that state levelled at the steamboat monopoly, Fulton on his return was exposed for several hours to the inclemency of the weather while crossing the Hudson in an open boat, and contracted a severe illness, which subsequent exposure rendered fatal. His death was recognized as a great public calamity, and beside the usual tributes of respect and regret from corporations and public societies, the members of both houses of the state legislature resolved to wear mourning for some weeks. Fulton was married in 1806 to Miss Harriet Livingston, a relative of the chancellor, by whom he had 4 children. He was of a slender person, above the ordinary stature, with large dark eyes, and features of manly beauty. His success in interesting capital and official influence in the pros

ecution of his projects indicates the possession of uncommon tact, energy, patience, and enthusiasm. These qualities were aided by the address and manners of a natural gentleman. He was eminently popular in his lifetime, and his name is still regarded with affectionate veneration by his countrymen. In 1846 congress passed an act appropriating $76,300 in full of the claims of Fulton against the United States for inventing floating steam batteries, superintending the construction of the steam frigate Fulton, and for the great benefits conferred on the country by his improvements in the application of steam to navigation. In Sparks's "American Biography" (1st series, vol. x.) there is a life of Fulton by James Renwick. "The Life of Robert Fulton," by C. D. Colden, 1 vol. 8vo., was published in New York in 1817.

FULVIA, a Roman lady, of the illustrious Fulvian family, born about 80, died about 40 B. C. She was married successively to 3 renowned men, Clodius, Curio, and Mark Antony, and had part in arranging the fearful proscriptions of the 2d triumvirate. When the head of Cicero was brought to her, she pierced the tongue with her needle. To withdraw Antony from Egypt, where the charms of Cleopatra detained him, and to take revenge upon Octavianus, who had affronted her by repudiating his wife, her daughter Clodia, she excited her brother-in-law Lucius Antonius to make war upon Octavianus. The war was unsuccessful, and Fulvia escaped to Greece, was reproached by Antony, who met her at Athens, and died of shame and regret at Sicyon.

FUMIGATION, a method of applying gases and substances reduced to vapor to individuals, infected articles and localities, for medicinal or hygienic purposes. By an inaccuracy of language this name is very generally given to the medicinal agents themselves; strictly speaking, the word bears the same relation to vapors that lotion, bath, and drink bear to liquids. The substances generally used in this manner are water, alcohol, ethers, chlorine, chlorides of the oxides, sulphur, mercurials, the aromatic oily principles of plants, benzoin, camphor, iodine, &c. When directed to the air passages, they are more properly said to be applied by inhalation. When applied to the whole body, fumigations are effected either in common rooms or in apparatus constructed for the purpose, and may be either emollient and soothing, or aromatic and stimulant; in scrofulous and cutaneous diseases iodine and sulphur fumigations are frequently employed in hospitals. When locally applied, they are directed by suitable contrivances to any portion of the body. The necessary vapors are obtained by heat or chemical action; and when the great absorbing power of the skin is taken into consideration, it may easily be believed that its extensive surface may be naturally used for the introduction of most important medicinal agents. Fumigations intended to decompose miasmata, to purify the air of a district or apartments, or to remove infec

tion from individuals or fomites (i. e., articles liable to retain contagious effluvia), are more properly called disinfectants. Aromatic and odorous substances, like benzoin, camphor, vinegar, and essential oils, vapors of sugar and burned rags, and other domestic fumigations, are not disinfectants, as they do not destroy miasmata, but merely substitute one odor for another; true disinfectants are nitric and chlorohydric acids, chlorides of lime, soda, and potash, which act both upon the infecting substance and upon the mephitic air. Fumigations of nitric acid are obtained by decomposing nitre by sulphuric acid with the aid of heat. The chlorine disinfectant so highly extolled by Guyton de Morveau is made by decomposing common salt and the deutoxide of manganese by sulphuric acid. These 2 fumigations, on account of their irritating properties, can only be applied to rooms and infected articles after the removal of the inhabitants. The chlorides of lime and soda (the latter in the convenient form of Labarraque's solution), and the disengagement of chlorine by burning chloric ether in a fluid lamp, are familiar and effectual ways of fumigating infected rooms and closets, even in the presence of the sick; infected garments may be sprinkled with chlorinated waters, or may be exposed in closed vessels to temperatures even higher than the boiling point of water.

FUNCHAL, a seaport town on the S. E. coast of the island of Madeira, of which it is the capital, in lat. 33° 38' N., long. 16° 54′ 30′′ W.; pop. 20,000. It stands on a wide shallow bay, embraced by the steep promontories of Punta da Cruz on the W., and Cape Garajao on the E., and enclosed in the rear by broken volcanic ridges. The streets are narrow, winding, and ill paved; there are no public buildings of much elegance, and the numerous churches and convents lack all architectural beauty. The English residents, who number 400 or 500, and other foreigners, have nearly all the trade, which formerly consisted chiefly in exporting wine to England and the British colonies; but the grape crop having utterly failed of late, no wine has been made since 1851, and the rearing of the cochineal insect has been undertaken in place of it. The harbor is indifferent. Fresh meat and poultry are sold at very high prices, but the richest fruits, excellent fish, and vegetables may be had cheaply in abundance. The town is resorted to by invalids on account of its delightful climate. The mean temperature is about 68° F., and the difference between the hottest and coldest months (August and February) averages only 10°.

FUNCTION (Lat. functio, performance), in mathematics, a quantity dependent on some other quantity for its value. Thus the height of the tide is a function of the hour of the day, of the moon's age, her declination, the change of her declination, the latitude, the form and position of the coast, the direction and force of the wind, &c. In algebra quantities are functions of each other when their mutual depend