moon, a bright planet or fixed star, or an artificial light. In any of the lower forms of cloud, partially obscuring the source of light, the corona sometimes appears as a luminous circle or patch of cloud. The colors are usually more lively than those of halos, forming about Sirius or Jupiter rings of 3°, 4°, and 5° diameter; around the moon, 3 and 5°, or like those about the sun, which are more frequently near to 6o, 9°, and 12°; and in all of them the ratio of diameters is in some part of the natural series of numbers, 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. The breadth of the inner ring may vary from 2° to 4°; but the second is double this, and so on. The colors are the reverse of those of halos; the 1st ring being within blue, then white, and then red; the 2d, purple, blue, green, and red; the 3d, pale blue and pale red. These colored rings are extremely frequent in Holland, Italy, and Spain; and near the equator they are common about the planet Venus. 4. Anthelia, or "glories," colored rings about the shadow of one's own head, when, in elevated situations, this falls on near clouds that lie opposite the sun; or, in the polar regions, very commonly when the shadow is cast horizontally upon a fog; or less perfectly, in lower latitudes, at sunrise, upon grass covered with dew. Bouguer first observed this among the Andes; he and several companions seeing each his own head only encircled with 3 colored rings-diameters, 5°, 11°, and 17°. Lamartine saw this phenomenon when on the summit of Lebanon; and it has been observed by many others. The colors have the same general order as in corona, the red border being outermost. A 4th colored ring, the "circle of Ulloa," is seldom complete.-Some further facts will be in place before seeking the causes of these phenomena. In high northern latitudes, halos and parhelia are very frequent; Capt. Parry always saw the former about the time of full moon. But whether in higher or lower latitudes, they are only seen when there intervene between the luminary and the observer those highest thread-like forms of cloud, the cirrus or cirro-stratus. The cold prevailing in the elevated regions occupied by these clouds renders it quite certain that their particles must be in the frozen condition-a fine ice mistsuch as we experience in the coldest days of winter, and which, driven against the face by a wind, actually prick the skin. These crystals incline chiefly to the form of hexagonal prisms; and to refraction and decomposition of light passing through certain angles of these, Marriotte was led to ascribe the production of halos. For any refracting angle of a prism there exists a minimum angle of deviation, dependent on the density and the angle. Now, the minimum deviation of a decomposed ray occurs when the angle of refraction is just half the refracting angle of the prism used. The refracting angle of the ice prisms being 60°, the angle of refraction giving the least deviation for the red ray from the original course of the light must be 30°, and, the refractive index of ice being 1.31,

the angle of incidence must be 41°. Then, the deviation being equal to twice this angle less the refracting angle, or 2x41°—60°=22°, a result very closely agreeing with that of observation for the smallest and most common form of halo. To produce this ring, then, it is only necessary to imagine the minute prisms of ice floating or descending through the air in all positions, but, owing to the resistance presented by the air to the action of their weight, taking especially horizontal and vertical directions; then, near to the position giving a minimum deviation of the transmitted rays, a considerable turning of the crystal about its axis gives only an insignificant change in the direction of the emergent light; and hence, a far larger number of the crystals will transmit red rays deviating from their previous rectilinear course by exactly or nearly this angle of 22°, than by any other. The rays from the sun or moon being in effect parallel, there should, at nearly this angle with the luminary, be seen, therefore, a dim circle, red and defined within, but beyond this having the colors overlapping one another, and indistinctly seen or resulting in white. The halo of 90° or 92° may be accounted for by the refraction occurring through the angles of 90° at which the sides of the ice prisms meet their bases, the minimum deviation for red in this case being about 45°. The partial polarization of the light in a plane tangent to the ring shows it to be refracted light; that of the rainbow being polarized in a plane normal to the circle, and mainly due to reflection. Muschenbroek saw large colored halos about the moon, by looking through plates of ice formed on the panes of his window. The white horizontal and vertical bands can be explained by reflection from the vertical faces of crystals, descending in a calm air and in all possible azimuths. The parhelia may be considered as being the intensified effect at certain points of a greater condensation of the dispersed rays at the angles of minimum dispersion; so that they are to the halo what the halo itself is to the diffused light thrown on the surrounding cloud. The fact that they are usually a little without the rings has been supposed due to the greater obliquity of the crystals, at the points where they appear, to the plane of refraction. But while the explanation of these simpler parts is quite satisfactory, that of the more complicate and peculiar phenomena becomes extremely difficult; and we can only in a general way refer these to the variety of changes, including reflection, and simple and double refraction, of which light is capable, and to the probable effects of extraordinary forms and combinations of the crystals. If the views taken of the phenomenon be correct, then, by consequence, halos prove what is the temperature of the highest cloud region, and the condition of cloud occupying it. Certain it is that they are closely connected with peculiar meteorological changes; and that, occurring in summer, they indicate rain, and it has been said wind, while in winter they precede snow, or it

may be also frosts.-The explanation of corona and anthelia is quite distinct, and more simple. These are never seen upon the cirrus or ice cloud, but upon any form of vesicular cloud, more or less transparent. Very complete coronæ are seen about a candle flame viewed through condensing steam, or through a glass finely dewed, or dusted with lycopodium; and the writer has frequently seen these rings about the flame of a lamp viewed upon arising from sleep in the night, when the cornea may be supposed to be unusually filmed over with moisture, or the air to contain condensed vapor. Obviously, then, as explained by Young, the rings of coronæ, the colors of which are those of the reflected series in thin plates, are fringes due to interference of rays which have undergone diffraction by grazing on either side of numerous minute globules of cloud or fog, that have for the time nearly the same size. (See DIFFRACTION.) An illustrative instance was first given by Necker of Geneva. When the sun rises behind a hill covered with trees or brushwood, a spectator in the shadow of the hill sees all the small branches that are nearly in the line of the solar rays, on either side, projected on the sky, not black and opaque, but white and brilliant, as if of silver, the effect of a small opaque body on the light being, in this class of cases, equivalent to that of a small opening in a dark body through which the rays should penetrate. Coronæ exist around the sun more frequently than would be supposed; but they are often not observed, on account of the brilliancy of that orb. At such times they may be detected by looking at the reflection of the sun in still water, or in black glass. Anthelia are explained upon the same principle as coronæ, with the single exception that the diffraction in this instance does not occur during the direct transmission of the solar beams through the cloud, but during the retrograde transmission of rays which, having penetrated to considerable depth in the cloud, undergo reflection, and are then diffracted by nearer globules while on their return to the eye. It has been estimated that, in the middle latitudes of North America, halos and coronæ are visible at least as often as twice weekly by day, and twice monthly by night.

HALYBURTON, THOMAS, a Scottish divine, born in Dupplin, near Perth, Dec. 25, 1674, died in St. Andrew's, Sept. 23, 1712. He was licensed to preach in 1699, and in the following year was settled as minister in Ceres parish, where he remained till called to the professorship of divinity in the college of St. Leonard at St. Andrew's in 1710. Entering on the duties of this latter office, he was seized in 1711 with a violent illness, from which he never entirely recovered. He was an accomplished scholar, and an able theological writer. His great work on "Natural Religion Insufficient, and Revealed Necessary" (4to., Edinburgh, 1714), has been often republished, and is still a standard work on that subject. His "Great

Concern of Salvation" (8vo., 1722), and his "Nature of Faith," are also able treatises. All these, together with his miscellaneous writings, and an interesting autobiographical memoir, have been published in repeated editions.

HALYS, the modern KIZIL IRMAK (red river), the largest river of Asia Minor, rises in the mountains which form the boundary between Armenia Minor and Pontus; flows with a W. or S. W. course, receiving many tributaries on its way, as far as Cæsarea Mazaca; then turns to the N. W., and gradually to the N. E., and discharges itself by several mouths into the Euxine between Sinope and Amisus. It has a circuit of about 600 miles. Its ancient importance appears from the fact that Asia was often divided into Asia cis Halyn and Asia trans Halyn. It was an early boundary between the IndoEuropean races in the western portion of Asia Minor, and the Semitic races which prevailed generally in south-western Asia. It separated the great Lydian empire from the Medo-Persian, and near its banks was fought the first battle between Croesus and Cyrus.

HAM, a small French town in the department of Somme, about 60 m. from Paris; pop. 2,375. It possesses a famous old castle, which was newly fortified toward the end of the 15th century and strengthened by modern works, so as to be now a fortress of some importance. Among the numerous eminent persons imprisoned in the castle of Ham were Joan of Arc, who spent there a few days before being surrendered to the English; Mirabeau; the ministers of Charles X.; Louis Napoleon, from Oct. 7, 1840, to his flight, May 25, 1846; the generals Cavaignac, Lamoricière, Changarnier, and Bedeau, Col. Charras, and others, who were for some time detained there after the coup d'état of Dec. 2, 1851.

HAM, one of the sons of Noah, supposed to have been the youngest. The name signifies in Hebrew "hot" or "burnt," and is regarded as indicative of the regions allotted to his descendants by his 4 sons, who, according to Gen. x., occupied the southern parts of the ancient world. The foundation of the empires of Assyria and Egypt is attributed to them, as well as that of Sidon and other Phoenician republics. Egypt, in particular, is designated in poetical passages of the Scriptures as the "land of Ham," which answers to the Coptic name of that country, Kemi or Kami, the Xnua of Plutarch, and the Chmè of the Rosetta inscription, according to Champollion. The Canaanites formed a branch of the biblical Hamitic race.

HAMADAN, a town of Persia, in the province of Irak Ajemi, situated at the foot of Mt. Elwend, on the site, it is generally supposed, of the ancient Ecbatana, or, according to Col. Rawlinson, of one of the two Median cities of that name; pop. about 40,000. It occupies a large surface on sloping ground, and has numerous gardens, bazaars, baths, caravansaries, and mosques. Near one of the latter is an edifice containing the tomb of Avicenna, the celebrated

Arabian physician, who lived there in the first half of the 11th century; another is believed by the inhabitants to contain the tomb of Esther and Mordecai. There are also a synagogue and an Armenian church. The town is mostly decayed and unattractive; the tomb of Avicenna, however, attracts numerous pilgrims. It has also a hot mineral spring, some manufactures in silk fabrics and carpets, and a large trade with Bagdad and various cities of Persia. Hamadan was conquered by the Arabs shortly after the death of Mohammed, was afterward destroyed and rebuilt, and was taken by the Seljooks, and by the Mongols of Genghis Khan and Tamerlane. (See EOBATANA.)

HAMADRYADS (Gr. ȧua, together, and Spus, an oak), in Grecian mythology, deities who presided over woods, and lived and died with the trees which were under their protection. The poets frequently confound the hamadryads with the dryads, naiads, and other rural nymphs. HAMAH (the Hamath of Scripture and Epiphania of the Syrian Greeks), a city of Syria, on the Aasy or Orontes, about 110 m. N. E. of Damascus; pop. 45,000, mostly Arabs. It is pretty well built, has large bazaars, numerous baths, mosques, hydraulic works, manufactures of silk, cotton, and woollen fabrics, and an active trade in these articles, as well as in wax, safflower, and other goods, with Aleppo and other towns of Asia and Africa. The city is often mentioned in Scripture as situated on the northernmost boundary of Palestine in its widest limits; it was the seat of a Syrian king, and called the Great (Hamath Rabbah) in the time of the Jewish kings, was conquered by the Assyrians, was flourishing under the Seleucida, and the capital of a Syrian principality in the middle ages. One of its princes was the celebrated Arabian historian Abulfeda, who died in 1331. HAMAN, a minister of the Persian king Ahasuerus, of the race of Agag, who, because Mordecai the Jew refused to pay him homage, resolved on the destruction of all the Jews in the Persian monarchy. By falsehood and intrigue he succeeded in obtaining a decree for this purpose; but Esther, the Jewish consort of Ahasuerus, interposed for their deliverance, and Haman was hanged on the very gibbet he had caused to be prepared for Mordecai. His history is contained in the book of Esther.

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HAMANN, JOHANN GEORG, a German philosopher, who, as author, adopted the appellation Magus of the North," born in Königsberg, Aug. 27, 1730, died in Münster, June 21, 1788. His father destined him for the pulpit, but an impediment in his speech, the weakness of his memory, and his philosophical views, inclined him to critical, poetical, and philological studies. In 1755 he was received into the house of a merchant of Riga, and devoted a great part of his time to the study of politics and commerce. In 1756 he made a journey for the firm to Berlin, Lübeck, Holland, and England. In London he remained over a year, and, discontented with the result of his mission, abandoned himself to dissipation,

from which he was rescued by the reading of the Bible. In 1759 he enjoyed again a short period of leisure in his father's house, and occupied himself with classical and oriental literature. In 1762 he became a copyist in the office of the city governor; in 1765 again a tutor; in 1767 secretary in the custom house, and in 1777 baggage master. An anonymous friend relieved him at length, in 1784, from pecuniary cares, and enabled him to resign his place in 1787, in order to recover his shattered health by travel. He then lived, partly at Düsseldorf, partly at Munster, on intimate terms with Jacobi and the princess Gallitzin, who, when he died in the following year, had him buried in her garden. Hamann composed only small treatises (Fliegende Blätter), in which he opposed the prevailing intellectualism of his times. His style was diffuse and obscure, but Lessing, Herder, Goethe, Jacobi, and Jean Paul recognized his talent. Herder especially adopted many of his views, and gave to them a wider publicity. Fragments of his works were published by Cramer under the title Sibyllinische Blätter des Magus aus Norden (Leipsic, 1819), and his Sämmtliche Schriften by F. Roth (7 vols., Berlin, 1821-'5; vol. viii. containing “Additions and Explanations," by G. A. Wiener, Berlin, 1843). The first good work on his life and writings was published by E. H. Childemeister (Hamann's des Magus in Norden Leben und Schriften, 3 vols., Gotha, 1857).

HAMBACH, a village of Rhenish Bavaria, near Neustadt, containing the remains of the medieval castle Kastanienburg, which has be come renowned from the great popular gathering of May 27, 1832, held there under the leadership of the political writers Siebenpfeiffer, Wirth, and others, for the purpose of agitating and preparing "the regeneration of Germany as a free country." This gathering, known under the name of Hambacher Fest, was composed of about 30,000 Germans, principally from the Rhenish provinces, and of numerous Polish and French liberals, and became a source of rigorous persecutions on the part of the German governments. The castle was presented in 1842 to the crown prince, the present king of Bavaria, and has since been restored and called after him Maxburg. It was greatly damaged during the revolution of 1849.

HAMBURG, an independent republic of Germany, and member of the Germanic confederation, composed of the city of Hamburg with s small adjoining district on the Elbe, between Hanover and Denmark, some detached localities enclosed by Holstein, and the district of Ritzebüttel (in which is the town of Cuxhaven) and the island of Neuwerk at the mouth of the Elbe; area, 150 sq. m.; pop. in 1857, about 220,000, most of whom were Lutherans. The state has one vote in the deliberations of the federal diet, but in the select council of that body the Hanse towns united have but one. Its contingent to the federal army is 1,298. For its own purposes of police and defence, Hamburg has a burgher

The expenditures for the same year were estimated at 7,425,410 marks, 7,115,410 being for ordinary charges, and 310,000 for extraordinary. The public debt, Jan. 1, 1858, amounted to 62,935,465 marks banco.-HAMBURG, the capital of the above republic, is one of the 4 remaining Hanse towns, and the principal commercial city of Germany; lat. 53° 32′ 51′′ N., long. 9° 58′ 83" E.; pop. in 1857, 169,718. It is built on the N. bank of the Elbe, at the mouth of the river Alster, 75 m. from the German ocean, 60 m. N. E. of Bremen, and 36 m. S. W. of Lübeck. The Elbe here contains several islands which belong to the state. The channel, from 300 to 750 feet in width, between them and the city, serves for a harbor, there being no docks, and numerous canals fed by the river give access to the merchants' warehouses. The Alster forms two lakes, one on the N. of the city called the Outer Alster, and the other just within the walls, known as the Inner Alster. They communicate with the Elbe by sluices, and also with a ditch 120 feet wide which surrounds the city and marks the former line of fortifications. The ramparts are now converted into walks and gardens. The city proper, within the line of ramparts, consists of an old and new town (Altstadt and Neustadt). The Hamburger Berg, or suburb of St. Paul, extends N. from the river till it touches the Danish city of Altona, from which it is separated by a ditch 8 feet wide. The suburb of St. George lies on the N. E., and a new suburb called the Hammerbrook on the S. E., on a piece of swampy land rescued from the river. The surface of this tract, over a mile square, has been raised 4 feet by rubbish from the great fire, which in 1842 burned down 61 streets, with 1,747 houses. Few of the public buildings are remarkable for architectural effect. The most interesting are the exchange, the new government house, the Schulgebäude (including the Johanneum college), the churches of St. Nicholas and St. Peter, both modern Gothic edifices, that of St. Michael, with a steeple 456 feet high, one of the loftiest in Europe, the new synagogue for the orthodox Jews opened in 1859, and the buildings occupied by the custom house and bank, and by the various post offices, several foreign states maintaining here post offices of their own. Sixty bridges cross the rivers and canals. The charitable institutions number about 260, including the Jewish hospital endowed by Solomon Heine in 1840, and which, according to the stipulations of the founder,

was thrown open to all Christian denominations after the emancipation of the Jews in 1849. The Raues Haus was founded in 1833 by the philanthropist Johann Heinrich Wichern at Horn, near Hamburg, for the benefit and training of depraved or abandoned children. It contains now several hundred, of whom are girls, who are employed in work for which they receive free board and education, but no pay. A seminary for the training of officers for this and kindred institutions was opened in 1845, and in 1851 one for the moral and scientific education of pupils of respectable families who pay for their tuition; also a school in which 12 of the staff of the Raues Haus are trained as teachers. The great hospital in the suburb of St. George accommodates from 4,000 to 5,000 persons. The orphan asylum educates and provides for 600 scholars. The principal educational institutions are the gymnasium and the Johanneum college, the latter containing the city library of 160,000 volumes and 5,000 MSS. Other libraries are the commercial, with 30,000 volumes, and the patriotic society's, with 40,000. There are museums of natural history, antiquities, and art, an academy of music, a botanical garden, and an observatory. The Jung fernstieg, or Maiden's Walk, is a fashionable promenade along the Inner Alster, whose waters on summer evenings are crowded with pleasure boats. The immediate environs of the city have many beautiful places of resort. -Hamburg has communication by railway with the principal cities of Germany, and by steamship with Helgoland, Hull, London, Newcastle, Liverpool, Leith, Amsterdam, Havre, Christiania, New York, &c. Beside this, 23 large packet ships sail regularly to Australia, Valparaiso, and San Francisco, 14 large vessels to New York, New Orleans, Galveston, and Indianola, 5 to New York direct, and others to various ports of North and South America. Vessels drawing 14 feet of water come up to the city at all times, but larger ships usually discharge cargo at Cuxhaven. A very large emigration takes place from Hamburg to the United States; in 1854 it amounted to 20,835, in 1855 to 8,590, and in 1856 to 16,766. The merchant marine of Hamburg, on Jan. 1, 1858, comprised 491 vessels, with a burden of 63,748 lasts-the last being equal to about 6,000 lbs. Of these, 20 were steamers, with an aggregate capacity of 5,337 lasts. The following table shows the movements of shipping at Hamburg in 1857:

The principal articles of import are cotton, wool, woollen and worsted stuffs, yarn, silk, hides, hardware, iron, coffee, sugar, wine, brandy, rum, tobacco, indigo, dye woods, tea, pepper, and coals. The exports consist of the same articles, except coal, Hamburg being mainly a centre of distribution. The manufacturing industry is important, and comprises ship building, sugar refining, distilling, calico printing, dyeing, the preserving of provisions, and the manufacture of sail cloth, ropes, leather, woollen goods, cigars, cutlery, musical instruments, carriages, furniture, hats, soap, glue, &c. Hamburg is the seat of many important banking and commercial houses, and no fewer than 1,000 brokers are engaged in mercantile agencies. It is renowned for its publishing houses, the principal of which is that of Hoffmann and Campe, the publishers of many of Börne's and Heine's works. Among the newspapers best known abroad are the Börsenhalle, Hamburger Correspondent, and Hamburger Nachrichten.-Hamburg is a very ancient city. Charlemagne built a castle here about the beginning of the 9th century. During its growth from a village into a town it was several times destroyed by Northman and Slavic neighbors. The emperor Otho IV. (1215) made it an imperial city, and in 1241 a commercial treaty into which it entered with Lübeck laid the foundation of the Hanseatic league. In 1536 it adopt ed the reformed religion. During the early part of the 16th century, although recognized as an estate of the empire, it was without a seat or vote in the diet, and was troubled by the kings of Denmark, who claimed its sovereignty as counts of Holstein. By convention with Denmark, in 1768, its rights were conceded, and in 1770 it was confirmed as a free city of the Germanic empire. The wars of the 18th century were rather favorable than otherwise to its prosperity, but in 1803 it fell under the power of the French, who after repeated exactions annexed it to the French empire as the capital of the department of Bouches d'Elbe. In 1813-'14 the French under Marshal Davoust sustained in it that terrible siege in which 40,000 citizens were driven out in mid-winter, and 1,100, whose monument is to be seen near Altona, perished of hunger. On June 8, 1815, it joined the Germanic confederation as a free Hanse town. On May 5, 1842, the conflagration above mentioned broke out, and burned for

4 days, destroying of the city, since which time it has gained greatly in the beauty of many of its streets and public buildings. The town hall, which escaped from that casualty, was destroyed by fire in 1859.

HAMELIN, FERDINAND ALPHONSE, & French admiral, born at Pont-l'Evêque, Sept. 2, 1796. He served at an early age under the command of his uncle Jacques Félix Emmanuel Hamelin (1768-1839), who was a naval officer of great merit. In 1827 he took a successful part in the expeditions against the pirates in the Mediterranean, and in 1830 in those against Algiers. As naval commander in Oceania from 1844 to 1846, he displayed much diplomatic skill in the negotiation with the British on the subject of the Marquesas islands. In 1848 he was promoted to the rank of vice-admiral, became a member of the board of admiralty in 1849, and soon afterward maritime prefect of Toulouse. In July, 1853, he was nominated commander-inchief of the French fleet in the Mediterranean, passed the Dardanelles, Oct. 17, entered the Bosporus Nov. 17, and joined the English fleet. The united fleets bombarded Odessa, May 12, 1854, and Hamelin evinced great ability on this occasion, as well as afterward in superintending the embarkation and landing of the French troops in the Crimea, and during the attacks on the fortifications of Sebastopol. The emperor conferred on him the rank of admiral, Dec. 2, 1854, which entitles him to a seat in the senate. After the death of M. Ducos he was appointed (April 19, 1855) minister of marine, an office which he continues to hold (Oct. 1859).

HAMILCAR BARCA, or BARCAS, & Carthaginian general, and leader of the popular party, born shortly before the beginning of the 1st Punic war, fell in a battle against the Vettones in Spain, 229 B. C. The name Barca, which he had in common with many distinguished Car thaginians, is supposed to signify lightning, like that of the Hebrew commander Barak. Little is known about his early life, and he appears in history as commander of a Carthaginian army in the 18th year of the first Punic war, 247 B. C. The balance of this protracted struggle was then decidedly in favor of the Romans. The island of Sicily, its chief scene, was in their hands, excepting only Drepanum and Lilybæum on the W. coast, which they were blockading from the land side. Hamilcar boldly seized upon a commanding position, the summit of Ercte or Hercte, now called Monte Pellegrino, near Panormus (Palermo), where he encamped his troops, while the bay be low, defended by the mountains, most favorably sheltered the Carthaginian vessels. From this double stronghold he made successful incursions into the interior of the island as far as the E. coast, and upon the S. coast of Italy, vanquished several Roman detachments, and took Eryx near the N. W. angle of Sicily (244). Holding this still more favorable position, he continued his incursions over the island and the peninsula. It was only the great defeat of the