few more questions to the man he was examining, then suddenly threw down his pen, and, turning to Gallatin, said: "You are right, sir." "It was so on all occasions," said Gallatin to Mr. John Russell Bartlett, to whom, more than 60 years afterward, he related the anecdote; "Gen. Washington was slow in forming an opinion, and never decided until he knew he was right." After Gallatin went out, Washington inquired about him, and, learning his history, made his acquaintance, and urged him to become his land agent. Gallatin, however, declined the situation, and in 1786, by the advice of Patrick Henry, he purchased some land on the banks of the Monongahela in Fayette co., Penn., settled there, became naturalized, and devoted himself to agriculture. In 1789 he was elected a member of the convention to revise the constitution of the state, and in the two succeeding years was a member of the legislature, to which he was chosen as the candidate of the republican or democratic party. In the latter body he proposed measures to resuscitate the credit of Pennsylvania which gave strong indications of the financial abilities which he afterward displayed so conspicuously in the administration of the federal treasury. In 1793 the legislature elected him U. S. senator. He took his seat, but his right to it was contested, and at the end of two months it was decided by a strict party vote of 14 federalists to 12 democrats that he was ineligible. The constitution requires that a senator should have been 9 years a citizen. It was contended by the democrats that the 9 years' citizenship began with Gallatin's arrival in Massachusetts in 1780; but the federalists maintained that it did not begin until he took the oath of allegiance in 1785. The legislature of Pennsylvania acquiesced in the decision, and chose James Ross in Gallatin's place. In 1794, during the recess of congress, the disturbance known as the "whiskey insurrection" broke out in western Pennsylvania; its object was resistance to the excise laws. Gallatin took part in the peaceful political opposition to the excise, and afterward, on Aug. 1, 1794, acted as secretary of a great meeting of armed men collected by the leaders of the insurrection. He also acted as secretary of a delegate convention of the same party assembled Aug. 14 at Parkinson's Ferry, and subsequently was one of a committee appointed by the insurgents to propose terms to the government. His object, however, in mingling with these transactions, was to exert his influence to suppress the insurrection, and to bring about a peaceful accommodation between the government and the people. This was finally effected, in great part by Gallatin's tact, courage, and firmness, at considerable personal risk to himself. So highly were his services in the cause of order estimated in his own neighborhood, that the people of a district adjoining that in which he resided, comprising Washington and Alleghany counties, nominated him without his knowledge for representative to congress, on the express ground of his successful management of

the excise difficulties, and elected him 3 days after his nomination over the regular candidates of both political parties. For 3 terms in succession he was reëlected from the same district. He entered congress in Dec. 1795, and soon took a high position in debate and legislation, and was recognized as the leader of the republican or democratic party, though Madison and other able and experienced men of the same party were in the house with him. By a speech delivered April 26, 1796, in opposition to the British treaty, during the great debate on that question, he established beyond all dispute his reputation as a dexterous and unflinching politician, though the tone he adopted greatly exasperated the federalists, who could not patiently listen to denunciation of Washington and Jay as having pusillanimously surrendered the honor of their country, coming as it did, says Hildreth, "from the mouth of one whose evident youth and foreign accent might alone serve to betray him as an adventurer, whose arrival in the country could hardly have been long anterior to the termination of the revolutionary struggle." A leading federalist, Mr. Tracy of Connecticut, replied to Gallatin, and in the course of his speech remarked that "he could not feel thankful to any gentleman for coming all the way from Geneva to accuse Americans of pusillanimity." Two days later, Fisher Ames made his great and decisive speech in favor of the treaty. In the course of the debate Gallatin made a speech on the resolution calling on the president for Jay's correspondence, which Jefferson in a letter to Madison declared was "worthy of being printed at the end of the 'Federalist,' as the only rational commentary on the part of the constitution to which it relates." In every important debate that took place while he was in congress Gallatin participated with vigor and effect, though his favorite topics were such as related to financial questions. It was on his motion that the committee of ways and means was first organized as a standing committee of the house in 1795. He explained his financial views in two pamphlets, "A Sketch of Finances" (1796), and "Views of Public Debt," &c. (1800). Beside his speeches on the British treaty, he made important speeches on "Foreign Intercourse," March 1, 1798; on the "Alien Law," March 1, 1799; and on the "Navy Establishment," Feb. 9 and 11, 1799. On May 15, 1801, he was appointed by President Jefferson secretary of the treasury, which office he held through 3 presidential terms, under Jefferson and Madison, till 1813. He was eminently successful in his management of the treasury department, and soon attained a distinguished reputation as one of the first financiers of the age. His annual reports exhibit great ability, and had the highest influence upon, the general legislation of the republic. He opposed the increase of the national debt, and prepared the way for its gradual extinction. He systematized the mode of disposing of the public lands, and was a zealous advocate of internal improvements, and particularly of the national

road and of the coast survey. He also exercised great influence on the other departments of the government, and on the politics of the country. In 1809 President Madison offered him the state department, which he declined, preferring to remain at the head of the treasury. He was opposed to going to war with Great Britain in 1812, and as a member of the cabinet exerted himself strenuously to restore amicable relations with the British government. An offer having been made by the Russian government to mediate between the United States and Great Britain, President Madison, March 8, 1813, nominated as ministers to negotiate, Gallatin, James A. Bayard of the senate, and John Quincy Adams, at that time American minister at St. Petersburg. Gallatin and Bayard in May sailed for St. Petersburg in a private ship, with a cartel from the British admiral, granted at the request of the Russian ambassador at Washington. The appointment of these commissioners had been made during the recess of congress. In a few weeks the senate came together in a called session, when great opposition was made to Gallatin's confirmation, on the ground that a diplomatic appointment was inconsistent with the headship of a department, it appearing that Gallatin still remained secretary of the treasury, an arrangement having been made by which, during his absence, the duties of his office were discharged by the secretary of the navy, under an act of 1792 which allowed such temporary substitutions. The senate, after discussion, rejected Gallatin as commissioner by a vote of 18 to 17. The attempt at Russian mediation resulted in nothing, but in Jan. 1814, an offer was received from the British government proposing a direct negotiation for peace at London or Gottenburg. Selecting Gottenburg as the place, President Madison nominated as commissioners John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay, Jonathan Russell, Bayard, and Gallatin. Gallatin was still abroad, and to obviate the objection of the senate on account of his holding the office of secretary of the treasury, he resigned that post definitively, and a successor was appointed. It was finally decided that the negotiations should be conducted at Ghent. In the discussions which resulted in the treaty of peace, Dec. 24, 1814, and in the commercial convention with Great Britain a short time afterward, Gallatin had a prominent and honorable share. In 1815 he was appointed minister to France, where he remained until 1823. During this period he was twice deputed on special missions of importance, to the Netherlands in 1817 and to England in 1818. While in this office he rendered some essential service to Mr. Alexander Baring in the negotiation of a loan for the French government. Mr. Baring in return pressed him to take a part of the loan, offering him such advantages in it that without advancing any funds he could have realized a fortune. "I thank you," was Gallatin's reply; "I will not accept your obliging offer, because a man who has had the direction of the finances of his country as long as I have

should not die rich." On his return from France he refused a seat in the cabinet, and declined to be a candidate for vice-president, to which he was nominated by the democratic party. In 1826 he was appointed by President Adams envoy extraordinary to Great Britain. After negotiating several important commercial conventions, he returned to the United States in Dec. 1827, and took up his residence in the city of New York. Soon after his return he prepared the argument in behalf of the United States to be laid before the king of the Netherlands as an umpire on the Maine boundary question. In 1880 he was chosen president of the council of the university of New York. In 1831 he published "Considerations on the Currency and Banking System of the United States," in which he advocated the advantages of a regulated bank of the United States. He was a member of the free trade convention at Philadelphia in 1831, and prepared for that body the memorial which was submitted to congress. From 1831 to 1839 he was president of the national bank in the city of New York, and on his resigning the office was succeeded by his son James Gallatin. The remainder of his life was devoted to literature, and especially to historical and ethnological researches. He was elected president of the New York historical society in 1843, and held the office till his death. In the previous year he had been one of the chief founders, and was chosen first president of the ethnological society. During the controversy with Great Britain on the north-eastern boundary he published an able pamphlet on the subject, which displayed great research. Again, in 1846, during the Oregon difficulties, he published letters on the "Oregon Question," distinguished by impartiality, moderation, and power of reasoning. He was strongly opposed to war, and two years later, during the war with Mexico, he wrote a pamphlet of which 150,000 copies were printed, and which had a marked influence on public opinion. At an early period Mr. Gallatin turned his attention to the ethnological and philological characteristics of the American Indians. His first essay on this topic was written in 1823 at the request of Humboldt. He afterward published "Synopsis of the Indian Tribes within the United States, east of the Rocky Mountains, and in the British and Russian Possessions in North America," forming vol. ii. of the Archæologia Americana (American antiquarian society, Worcester, 1886); and the subject was one of the last that occupied his pen, a work on the "Semi-Civilized Nations of Mexico, Yucatan, and Central America," with "Conjectures on the Origin of Semi-Civilization in America" (American ethnological society, New York, 1845). A French biographer of Gallatin, M. Feillet, remarks that his career was one of the happiest and most successful that ever fell to the lot of man. From the position of a friendless adventurer in a strange land he speedily raised himself by force of talent and energy to fame and power, filled with distinction the highest

in

offices, and after half a century of public service passed an honored and serene old age in study and in the cultivation of literature and science. "Mr. Gallatin," said Judge Story in a letter to a friend, “preserved a purity of character that is as valuable in a politician as it is rare. He is a most industrious and indefatigable man, and, by the consent of all parties, of accomplished genius and great acquirements. Let me say he is a truly great statesman. I rank him side by side with Alexander Hamilton."

GALLAUDET, THOMAS HOPKINS, LL.D., founder of the first institution in America for the instruction of the deaf and dumb, born in Philadelphia, Dec. 10, 1787, died in Hartford, Conn., Sept. 9, 1851. He was of Huguenot descent, early removed with his parents to Hartford, and was graduated at Yale college in 1805. He was successively a student of law, tutor in the college, and clerk in a counting-room, till in 1811 he entered the theological seminary at Andover, to prepare for the ministry. He was licensed to preach in 1814, but immediately became interested in the instruction of deaf mutes, and was appointed to superintend the establishment of an institution at Hartford for that purpose. To further this project, and to learn the best method of instruction, he went to Europe in 1815, visited London, Edinburgh, and Paris, and returned in the following year with Laurent Clerc, a highly educated deaf mute, who had been a favorite pupil of the abbé Sicard, and a teacher in the Paris institution. Meantime the asylum for the deaf and dumb had been chartered at Hartford, a building was in process of erection, and it went into operation in 1817 with a class of 7 pupils. Dr. Gallaudet retained his connection with it as principal till his resignation on account of impaired health in 1830, after which he continued to be one of the directors. More than 1,000 persons were educated at the asylum during his lifetime, which became also the parent of similar institutions in other parts of the country. After a short respite from his labors, he engaged again in philanthropic efforts, prepared various works to aid the education of the young, and in 1838 became chaplain of the Connecticut retreat for the insane, at Hartford, which office he retained till his death. He published a volume of "Discourses" (London, 1818), preached to an English congregation in Paris, a series of "Bible Stories for the Young," the "Child's Book of the Soul" (3d ed. 1850), the “Youth's Book of Natural Theology," and other similar works, and edited 6 vols. of the "Annals of the Deaf and Dumb" (Hartford). A discourse on his life, character, and services, by Henry Barnard, was published at Hartford in 1852. His biography,by Heman Humphrey, D.D.,was published in New York in 1857. GALLE, I. G., a German astronomer, born in Pabsthausen, Prussian Saxony, in 1812, was for many years director of the observatory in Berlin, and has officiated since 1853 in the same capacity and as professor of astronomy in Breslau. He discovered a comet in the constellation

Virgo (Dec. 2, 1839), in the Dragon (Jan. 25, 1840), and in the Swan (March 6, 1840), and made the first observation of the planet Neptune (Sept. 25, 1846) predicted by Leverrier. He has found from recent estimates, and by comparison with neighboring stars, that the 3d and brightest of Jupiter's satellites is probably of the 5th or 6th magnitude, while the others, which are of various degrees of brightness, are all of the 6th or 7th magnitude; and he supplied his friend Humboldt with a lucid exposition of the photometric arrangement of fixed stars, and with all the calculations respecting the visibility of southern stars in northern latitudes.

GALLEON (Sp. galeon), in the middle ages, a large, fast-sailing ship, carrying from 30 to 50 guns; at a later period, among the Spaniards, large armed ships of burden, with 3 masts and 3 or 4 decks, employed especially in transporting treasure from the American colonies.

GALLEY (Fr. galère), a long and narrow vessel, low-built, with one deck, propelled by oars and sails, and much used in the Mediterranean until the middle of the 17th century. It was substituted for the ancient trireme under the Byzantine empire, and was adopted by the Venetians and Genoese. It had 2 masts with lateen sails, and those of the largest size were about 166 feet long and 32 broad, with 26 pairs of oars, and carried about 1,000 men, with munitions and provisions for 2 months. The rowers were usually Turkish prisoners or convicts condemned to the oars and chained to the benches on which they sat. This service was deemed one of the severest penalties. The galleys of the knights of Malta were constantly in pursuit of the Mussulmans, and the battle of Lepanto was gained by the galleys of Spain, Venice, and the Holy See over those of Turkey. Galleys were long employed against the Barbary privateers. After the invention of gunpowder the artillery of the galleys usually consisted of 5 cannon in the fore part, 12 swivels on the sides between the oars, and 2 swivels in the stern.-Galleys were formerly used in France, Spain, and the Italian republics, as places of punishment for criminals condemned to hard labor. They were employed as rowers of the galleys, and were called by the English galley slaves. The custom was discontinued in the reign of Louis XIV., when galleys ceased to be used in the navy. The name bagnio is now applied to the prisons which took the place of the galleys.

GALLIA, a S. co. of Ohio, separated from Virginia on the E. by the Ohio river, and drained by Raccoon and Symmes creeks; area, about 420 sq. m.; pop. in 1850, 17,063. It has a rough surface, underlying which are beds of coal and iron. The soil is generally poor except in the vicinity of the Ohio. The productions in 1850 were 377,365 bushels of Indian corn, 62,095 of wheat, 96,831 of oats, 7,908 tons of hay, and 172,131 lbs. of butter. There were 2 grist mills, 1 saw mill, 1 iron foundery, 1 woollen factory, 2 newspaper offices, 22 church

es, and 2,819 pupils attending public schools. The county was settled by Frenchmen in 1790, whence its name. Capital, Gallipolis.

GALLIC ACID, a product of the decomposition of tannic acid or tannin, obtained in slender, silky needles or crystals. When pure, these are colorless, without odor, and of a sour and astringent taste. They are soluble in 100 parts of cold, or 3 parts of boiling water. Their solution decomposes by exposure to the air. The decomposition of the crystals dried at 212° F. is supposed to be represented by the formula HO, C, H, Os, though they may perhaps retain an atom of water, in which case it is more correctly 2HO, C, HO,. Gallic acid is a useful reagent for detecting the presence of iron in solutions. It does not possess the property of the solution of galls of precipitating gelatine. It is employed in medicine on account of its astringent property, particularly for arresting internal hemorrhages. It is thought to be more readily absorbed than other astringents, and thus to reach more effectually distant parts of the system, while it does not produce, like others, constipation of the bowels. Several methods are in use for obtaining it, either directly from the galls or from the solution of tannic acid first extracted from them. The powdered galls are made into a paste with water, and exposed for some weeks to the air at a temperature of 70° to 75° F., water being occasionally added to keep the paste moist. The residue, after expressing the paste to free it from the liquid portion, is boiled in pure water, and filtered while hot; the crystals of gallic acid separate as the solution cools. They should be purified by redissolving and boiling with a little animal charcoal or filtering through the same. As the presence of the smallest quantity of sesquioxide of iron will cause the crystals to be colored, the charcoal should be purified, and the filtering paper be washed with dilute hydrochloric acid. Gallic acid is obtained from solution of tannic acid by precipitation with sulphuric acid, the mixture being heated to the boiling point, and allowed to stand a few days.

GALLICAN CHURCH, a name for the Catholic church in France. The exact meaning of the term is not settled; some use it as merely signifying the Catholic church in France, while more commonly it is applied to that church only so far as it holds to certain national privileges, doctrines, and usages. Those who have advocated these distinguishing peculiarities, in opposition to Rome, have therefore generally been called the Gallican party, while their opponents were known as the Roman, papal, or, in modern times, the ultramontane party. There was in the church of France from the beginning a strong feeling of nationalism, the most important manifestation of which is found in the pragmatic sanction of St. Louis (Louis IX.), issued in 1268, which made the paying of taxes to the pope dependent on the consent of the king and the national clergy, and forbade the interference of a foreign power in the affairs of the national

church. The spirit of independence was strengthened by the decrees of the councils of Constance and Basel, which were adopted by France at the assembly of estates at Bourges in 1438, and promulgated in the pragmatic sanction of Charles VII., the fundamental law of the Gallican church. This placed the general council above the pope, forbade the paying of taxes to the pope for appointing bishops and prelates, and abolished the annates after the death of the then living pope. This sanction was repealed by Louis XI. in 1461, but restored by Charles VIII., and by Louis XII. through the edict of 1496. Its most important points were again changed by the concordat concluded in 1516 between Francis I. and Leo. X., which granted most of the demands of the pope, and, notwithstanding the protestations of the parliaments and provincial estates, remained valid until the revolution of 1789. The Gallican church became entirely dependent upon the kings, who often found it to their interest to strengthen the Gallican rather than the Roman tendencies. Thus, some of the decrees of the council of Trent were not received by France, as incompatible with the constitution of the national church, and as too favorable to the influence of the pope. The most important event in the history of Gallicanism is the "Declarations of the French Clergy" (Declarationes Cleri Gallicani), which in 1682, by order of Louis XIV., was drawn up by Bossuet, and defined the liberties and doctrines of the Gallican church in the following 4 articles: 1, kings and princes are in temporal matters subject to no spiritual power, and the latter can never absolve subjects from the oath of obedience; 2, the pope is subject to the decisions of an oecumenical council; 3, the power of the pope is moreover limited, as far as France is concerned, by the established prescriptions and usages of the Gallican church; 4, also in matters of faith the decisions of the pope are not infallible when not confirmed by the consent of the whole church. These propositions were proclaimed by a royal ordinance, to which all the instructions of the theological schools were to be conformed; but in Rome they were publicly burned by the common executioner. Louis XIV., in order to restore peace with the head of the church, soon revoked them, but his revocation was not received among the laws of the French state or church, and the articles therefore remained valid, and formed the palladium of the Gallican party in the church. The French revolution overthrew the whole Catholic church in France. Napoleon, as first consul of the republic, reëstablished it as a state church by a concordat with Pius VII., in 1801. To the concordat he added, April 8, 1802, organic articles, which enacted that the proclamation of papal decrees depends upon the discretion of the government; that there shall always be an opportunity for an appeal to the council of state against the abuses of ecclesiastical power; and that the teachers in the seminaries shall be always bound by the 4 propo

sitions of the Gallican clergy. The pope and a majority of the bishops protested against the validity of the organic articles, and a synod convoked in 1811 at Paris refused to declare the church of France independent of the pope. Louis XVIII. concluded, June 11, 1817, a new concordat, by which that of 1801 was abolished, and that of 1516 restored. As, however, the chamber of deputies refused to ratify it, the new concordat never received legal sanction. Although the clergy had no opportunity to declare themselves in synods and councils on the relation of the Gallican church to Rome, it was generally known that a majority were in favor of strengthening the union with Rome, and opposed to defending any thing in the national church which was regarded by Rome as unCatholic. The remarkable change of ecclesiastical views which has taken place in France since the beginning of the present century is in great part owing to the influence of the works of De Maistre and Bonald. In consequence of some agitation among the people, who were excited against the Jesuits, the government in 1824 demanded of the superiors of the episcopal seminaries, and in 1826 of the bishops, that they should bind themselves to the declarations of 1682. The July revolution of 1830 had but little influence on the inner development of the Gallican church. Louis Philippe made as great concessions to the hierarchy as the origin of his own authority would allow. The bishops whom he appointed were mostly opposed to the Gallican tendencies. An attempt made in 1831 by the abbé Châtel to establish a religious association under the name of the French Catholic church (église catholique Française), was at once regarded by the Catholics as being not a movement within but a secession from the national church. The establishment of the republic in 1848 gave to the church a liberty in ecclesiastical and educational affairs which she had not enjoyed for centuries. For the first time within more than 100 years the bishops held provincial and diocesan councils. It appeared that there still existed a difference of views between them concerning the relation of the French church to Rome; but it was no longer the same party division as formerly, the Gallican party of old being found to be almost extinct. All the bishops agreed that it was desirable to strengthen the union between Rome and France, especially in order to give to the national church greater strength to resist the secular rulers. One of the clearest proofs of the spirit now prevailing is the introduction of the Roman instead of the old national liturgies, which took place in one diocese after another, until in 1858 there were only 8 in which the Gallican liturgy was retained. Under Napoleon III. the bishops claim the right to meet without previous authorization in provincial councils; and the gov. ernment, in order to avoid a conflict, has permitted them to do so without deciding the legal question. The whole French episcopate are at present in the greatest harmony with Rome.

Some of the most important works on the Gallican church, its history and liberties, are: J. de Maistre, De l'église Gallicane; Dupin, Les libertés de l'église Gallicane (Paris, 1824); Frayssinous, Les vrais principes de l'église Gallicane; and an anonymous Mémoire sur la situation présente de l'église Gallicane, addressed to the bishops, and vindicating the Gallican church and its doctrines against the attacks of Count Montalembert.

GALLIENUS, PUBLIUS LICINIUS EGNATIUS, a Roman emperor, born A. D. 235, died in 268. He was proclaimed Cæsar by the senate in 253, when his father Valerian was saluted as Augustus. After the latter was defeated and made prisoner in 260 by Sapor, king of the Persians, he governed alone, and saw the empire during his whole reign rent by usurpers, invaded by barbarians, and desolated by the plague. While he abandoned himself to revelry at Rome, nearly 30 of his armies in different parts of the kingdom each elected their general to be emperor, and the military anarchy which succeeded has been called the age of the 30 tyrants. He regarded with indifference the dismemberment of his states, and the dignity of the empire was maintained only in the East, where Odenatus inflicted a defeat upon Sapor. When the legions of Illyria in 268 proclaimed Aureolus emperor, he immediately marched toward Rome to depose Gallienus; but the latter, waking from his apathy, besieged the usurper in Milan, and perished in the siege.

GALLINULE, a wading bird, of the sub-order gralla, family rallida, and sub-family gallinulina; comprising the genera porphyrio (Briss.), tribonyx (Dubus.) from Australia, gallinula (Briss.), and fulica (Linn.); the last has been described in the article Cooт. In the genus porphyrio (Briss.), or porphyrula (Blyth), the bill is short, thick, and strong, with the culmen much elevated at the base, and dilated on the forehead, with a large frontal plate and compressed sides; nostrils nearly circular; the wings and tail are short and rounded, the 2d, 3d, and 4th quills nearly equal and longest; the tarsi long and slender, with broad transverse scales; the toes very long and free at the base, claws long and somewhat curved. More than a dozen species are described, richly colored, inhabiting warm and temperate regions in pairs or small flocks, on the borders of lakes, rivers, and marshes; they prefer land to water, walk in a dignified manner, run lightly and quickly, and from the length of the toes are able to glide over the surface of floating water plants; their food consists chiefly of fruit, seeds, aquatic roots, and small fish and mollusks; their nest is concealed in the high reeds near the water's edge, made up of dried grasses, and the usual number of eggs is 3 or 4. The only American species is the purple gallinule (P. martinica, Linn.), with the head and lower parts fine bluish purple, darker and often nearly black on the abdomen and tibiæ; the sides and under wing coverts bluish green, and