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GALICIA (Ger Galitzien, Pol. Galicya), a crownland or province of Austria, now consisting of the kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria, the duchy of Auschwitz (Oswiecim) and Zator, and the grand duchy (late republic) of Cracow, lies between lat. 47° 50′ and 50° 40′ N., and long. 18° 54′ and 26° 31′ E., and is bounded N. by Russian Poland, from which it is in part separated by the Vistula, E. by Russia, S. by the Bukowina, or duchy of Czernowitz, and Hungary, being separated from the latter by the Carpathian ridge, and W. by Austrian and Prussian Silesia; area, 30, 157 sq. m.; pop. about 5,700,000. Its S. part is occupied by the N. branches of the Carpathians, which in some parts rise to a height of about 6,000 feet, and in some peaks above 8,000; the central region is hilly; the N. belongs to the great Polish plain. From the Carpathians and their offshoots descend all the rivers which cross the country, flowing mostly in a N., and partly in a S. E. direction. Those flowing N., the Biala, Sola, Skawa, Raba, Dunajec, Wisloka, San (which divides the country into two unequal parts), and the Bug, are tributaries of the Vistula; the Pruth and the Dniester flow S. E., the former to the Danube, the latter, with its affluents the Stry, Sered, and Podhorce, to the Black sea. There are some marshes in the N. E. part of the plain, and numerous mountain lakes, called "eyes of the sea," in the Carpathians, some at heights of 3,000 to 4,000 feet; sulphurous and other mineral springs abound in the valleys. The climate is healthy but cold, the country being exposed to the winds from the E. and N., and closed against those from the S.; the winters are long. The soil is varied, only the lower region, where loam and sand prevail, being productive, and in some places fertile; the mountains are rocky and sterile, or wooded. The principal products are wheat, rye, barley, oats, maize, potatoes, peas, beans, and other common vegetables, chicory, clover, flax, hemp, anise seed, rape, tobacco (which is monopolized by the government), hops, pears, apples, cherries, plums, and various other fruits, which are greatly inferior in quality to those of Hungary. There are few vineyards, and these yield no wine, the climate being too rough for the culture of the grape. The pine prevails in the forests, but the oak and beech also grow to an imposing size. Honey and wax, potash and tar, are made in large quantities. The rivers are rich in various kinds of fish. Among the wild animals are the wolf, fox, stag, hare, lynx, and bear, the wild goose, heron, swan, eagle, and vulture. The chief mineral productions are iron, which is found along the whole line of the Carpathians, salt, mostly from the celebrated rock salt mines of Wieliczka and Bochnia in the vicinity of Cracow, and partly from saline springs in the eastern parts of the country, sulphur, produced chiefly at Swosowice, and naphtha; but coal, lead, copper, zinc, silver, and gold are also found. The inhabitants are mostly Slavi, of Polish (including the Mazurs, W.

of the San, and Gorale, or western mountaineers) and Ruthenian race; but Jews, Germans, Armenians, and gypsies are also numerous. The nobility are mostly of Polish descent, vivacious, warlike, and ardently attached to their nationality; the peasants are hardy, rude, filthy, intemperate, sluggish, and slavish; the Jews, who are very numerous in the cities, of which they often form half the population, are, with few, sometimes brilliant exceptions, ignorant, bigoted, distinguished by a peculiar half oriental dress and an unpleasant German jargon, and treated with the utmost intolerance. Education, agriculture, and industry are still greatly neglected; wealth is rare; excessive misery, especially among the Jews and mountaineers, a frequent occurrence. Distilleries abound in the villages, and stores and trading shops in the town quarters of the Jews, who before the revolution of 1848 were excluded by the government from both cities proper and villages. The chief manufactures are linen, woollens, paper, wooden utensils, tobacco, leather, potters' ware, and glass. Commerce is limited and carried on mostly by Jews, the chief commercial cities being Cracow, Brody, and Lemberg, the capital. The chief exports are cattle and horses, grain, salt, timber, potash, skins and hides, and wool. Brody is an emporium for the transit trade with Russia. Other considerable towns are Zloczow, Tarnopol, Czortkow, Zolkiew, Brzezany, Stanislawow, Kolomea, Przemysl, Sambor, Stry, Rzeszow, Sanok, Tarnow, Jaslo, Bochnia, Sandec, and Wadowice-all, as well as Lemberg, capitals of circles of the same names-Jaroslaw, Dukla, Trembowla, and Halicz, from the last of which the country derives its name. The principal existing divisions are those of Cracow, Lemberg, and Stanislawow. The chief courts of justice (Oberlandesgerichte), as well as the two universities of the province, and other principal institutions, are at Lemberg and Cracow. The Roman Catholics, about 2,200,000, have bishops at Przemysl and Tarnow, and an archbishop at Lemberg; the members of the Greek united church, about 2,050,000, mostly Ruthenians, have a bishop at Przemysl; the nonunited Greeks, mostly Moldavians, belong to the bishopric of Czernowitz; the Armenians have an archbishop at Lemberg; the Protestants have a superintendent in the same city; the Jews, about 350,000, have no hierarchical centralization. The literary productions of the country, mostly in Polish, are scanty; a few journals and magazines appear at Cracow and Lemberg; various Hebrew periodicals have lately been commenced. Galicia is the only large division of the empire which has no regular fortress; transportation of troops, however, is facilitated by good roads, as well as by extensive railway lines, which will soon connect Cracow and Lemberg with each other and with all the principal cities of the empire.-The earliest regular settlement of Galicia was by the Ruthenians (Pol. Rusini), who now occupy the eastern division, also called Red Russia. This

was occupied toward the end of the 9th century by the Magyars, then passing to Hungary. Lodomeria, E. of modern Galicia, and then connected with it, was subdued by the Russians at the beginning of the 11th century. Various principalities, the chief of which was Halicz, were formed in the following period under the protection of the kings of Hungary. About the middle of the 13th century Galicia was annexed to Lithuania, in the early part of the 14th to Moscow, and after the death of the last prince of Halicz (1340) to Poland, under the reign of Casimir the Great. From that time it shared the destinies of the latter country, down to the time of its first division in 1772, when it was taken by the empress Maria Theresa, on the ground of the old claims of the crown of Hungary to its possession. It received the title of kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria, though Lodomeria was in the possession of Russia. The last division of Poland (1795) brought new fragments of Poland into the possession of the Hapsburgs, and the province was divided into E. and W. Galicia. A part was ceded in 1809 to the duchy of Warsaw, and was afterward annexed to Russian Poland; another part was converted by the treaty of Vienna into the republic of Cracow (1815), and was annexed to Austria after the Polish rising of Feb. 1846, which was suppressed in Galicia through a frightful slaughter of the nobility by the peasantry. Insignificant attempts at insurrection were made in the spring of 1848 at Cracow and Lemberg. Several conspiracies have since been detected and severely punished. The Bukowina has been separated from Galicia since the beginning of the reign of Francis Joseph.-For further particulars see the articles on AUSTRIA, CRACOW, and POLAND, to which latter head the history of Galicia chiefly belongs.

GALICIA, a province in the N. W. of Spain, comprising the 4 modern subdivisions of Corunna, Lugo, Orense, and Pontevedra, bounded N. and W. by the Atlantic, S. by Portugal, and E. by the Asturias and Leon; area, about 17,000 sq. m.; pop. in 1857, 1,891,878. It is intersected by numerous narrow valleys, and is mostly mountainous, as the western continuation of the Cantabrian range spreads over the greatest part of the province, and watered by numerous torrents, streams, and rivers. The most remarkable of the latter are the Minho, with its affluents the Sil and the Tea, the Lerez, the Ulla, and the Tambre, which all become navigable in their lower course and empty into the Atlantic, forming there wide estuaries, or rias, and safe harbors. The coast, being rugged and more broken than those of the Asturias and Biscay, owing to the violent currents of the Atlantic in these latitudes, presents many deep inlets and lofty promontories. Among its excellent harbors are those of Ferrol, said to be the best in Europe, and Vigo, the principal port on the western coast. The climate is cold in the interior and the more elevated regions, temperate in the lower country and

along the coast. The proportion of arable land is very limited. The soil produces flax, maize, barley, wheat, and an abundance of fruits, which constitute the main food of the population; the best oranges and wine are found in the S. part. Fishing and navigation form a principal part of the industry of the people, who also manufacture linen for domestic use. The inhabitants, called Gallegos, are a hardy and robust people, and speak a dialect greatly differing from the common Spanish. About 100,000 of them yearly leave their country, supplying the larger cities of Spain and Portugal with porters and servants, and the neighboring provinces with hands for the harvest. They return with their earnings after a longer or shorter absence, during which their wives perform the work in the house and the labor in the field. The chief towns are Corunna, the capital, Ferrol, Vivero, Pontevedra, Vigo, Mondonedo, Lugo, Santiago de Compostella (the ancient capital), and Orense.-Galicia was in antiquity the country of the Artabri and a section of Gallecia. After the invasion of Spain by the barbarians, in the commencement of the 5th century, it shared for a time the fate of the larger part of the peninsula, being successively conquered by the Suevi, Visigoths, and Saracens. Ferdinand I. erected it into a kingdom for one of his sons, who was soon deprived of his throne and estates by Alfonso, king of Castile. Galicia was subsequently often held by the younger sons of the kings of Castile as an appanage, became independent in the course of time, and was finally annexed to his dominions by Ferdinand the Catholic.

GALILEE, the northernmost of the 8 western divisions of Palestine, divided into Upper and Lower Galilee. Upper Galilee was bounded N. by Mt. Lebanon, Cole-Syria, and the regions of Tyre and Sidon, W. by the Mediterranean sea, E. by the Jordan, and S. by Lower Galilee. This division was called Galilee of the nations, or of the gentiles, because of the mixed nature of its population. Lower Galilee was bounded N. by Upper Galilee, W. by the Mediterranean, E. by the lake of Tiberias or Gennesareth, and S. by Samaria. This division contained the tribes of Zebulon and Asher, and its inhabitants spoke a rude, corrupt dialect, different from that of the Jews, and were noted for their turbulent and rebellious spirit. Here Christ resided till he was 30 years of age, and first appeared to his apostles after his resurrection. The chief city of Upper Galilee was Cæsarea Philippi; of Lower Galilee, Tiberias.

GALILEO GALILEI (Galileo, by which he is commonly known, being his Christian name), an Italian philosopher and mathematician, born in Pisa, Feb. 15, 1564, died in Arcetri, Jan. 8, 1642. He came of a noble Florentine family, whose original name was Bonajuti, which they exchanged for that of Galilei about the middle of the 14th century. Vincenzo, the father of the philosopher, was a man of learning and the author of a number of treatises on music. Owing to his large family and his straitened circumstances,

he was unable to give his sons a thorough education, but Galileo acquired, amid various discouragements, a fair knowledge of the classics and the common branches of learning, beside attaining no mean proficiency in music, drawing, and painting. The last named art he seems to have resolved upon cultivating as a profession, but his father had other designs for him, and sent him to Pisa to study medicine, where he was matriculated at the university as a scholar in arts, Nov. 5, 1581, and became a pupil of the celebrated botanist Andreas Casalpinus. He still employed his leisure in his favorite branches of the fine arts, and his love of drawing led him to study geometry, in which he took such delight that medicine was neglected, and after many fruitless remonstrances his father was obliged to leave him to the natural bent of his genius. His first discovery was in 1582, when he was led to infer the isochronism of the vibrations of the pendulum by noticing the regular swinging of a lamp in the cathedral of Pisa. The principle does not rigorously hold true when the arcs of oscillation are long and very unequal, but though it was 50 years before the philosopher applied his discovery to clock work, he at once perceived its importance, and caused it to be employed by physicians in counting the pulses of their patients. Some time afterward, having read the treatise of Archimedes on floating bodies, he invented a hydrostatic balance, and wrote a description of it, which introduced him to the friendship of Guido Ubaldi, the mechanist and mathematician. A paper on the centre of gravity, composed at the instance of this distinguished man, was indirectly the means of securing for him at the age of 24 a professorship of mathematics in the university of Pisa. The salary was but 60 crowns, and he had to look for his support partly to private pupils. His native impetuosity at once found vent in attacking the notions of the Aristotelians; but though he fortified his arguments with careful experiments, the sarcasm and violence of his language raised him up a host of enemies, whose attacks pursued him for the rest of his life. He refuted the maxim that the velocity of falling bodies is proportional to their weight, by letting fall unequal weights at the same time from the top of the leaning tower of Pisa, explaining that the trifling difference of time noticed in their respective descents was owing solely to the resistance of the air. The death of his father in 1591 left him the duty of supporting the family, and soon after this the interest of Ubaldi procured him the appointment of professor of mathematics for 6 years in the university of Padua by the republic of Venice. This new position, upon which he entered in Sept. 1592, gave him a salary of 180 florins, beside enabling him to remove from a city where the hostility of the Aristotelians embittered his existence. He constructed for the use of the state several useful machines, and composed treatises on gnomonics, astronomy, mechanics, architecture, and even fortification, which he

delivered in the form of lectures. In 1597 he made a kind of thermometer in which both air and water were employed. It was during this period that he began a friendly correspondence with Kepler, which continued until the death of the latter; and about the same time appeared a treatise on the sphere after the Ptolemaic system, which has been attributed to Galileo on rather insufficient grounds. It was published from a MS. in the library of Somaschi at Venice (Rome, 1656). Probably between the years 1593 and 1597 Galileo became a convert to the Copernican theory of the revolution of the earth about the sun; but it is impossible to fix the date of this important event in his life, for he tells us in a letter to Kepler (1597), that in deference to public opinion he concealed his conviction of the truth of the new doctrines for some years after he had formed it. On the expiration of the term of his professorship, the Venetian senate appointed him for 6 years more, and raised his salary to 320 florins. In 1604, a new star of remarkable brilliancy having appeared in the constellation Serpentarius, he attacked the popular notion that it was a meteor, and proved by the absence of parallax that it was far beyond the limits of our system. In 1606 his appointment at the university was again renewed, with an addition of 200 florins to his compensation. The crowds that came to hear him were now so great that he sometimes had to lecture in the open air, and his reputation was equally high at home and abroad. In 1609 a report reached him at Venice, where he was then visiting, that a Dutchman had constructed an instrument which had the property of making distant objects seem near. Upon his return to Padua the philosopher immediately applied himself to the solution of the mystery, and after trying several combinations of lenses, succeeded in making an instrument which magnified 3 times. It consisted merely of a leaden tube-an organ pipe in fact-with a plano-convex glass at one end and a plano-concave at the other; but so elated was he with his imperfect work, that he carried it to Venice, where it at once became an object of the intensest public curiosity. He presented it to the senate, who thereupon confirmed him in his professorship for life, and raised his salary to 1,000 florins. Galileo soon constructed another telescope which magnified 8 times, and at length a third which had a power of 30. The wonders of the heavens now unfolded to him, which no man had ever seen before, filled him with "incredible delight." His earliest observations were upon the moon, whose inequalities of surface he was the first to trace. He saw myriads of stars in the milky way, counted 40 in the Pleiades, and at length, on Jan. 13, 1610, after 6 nights' observation, discovered the revolution of 4 satellites around the planet Jupiter. He did not publish this intelligence until by repeated examination, up to March 22, he had insured himself against the danger of mistake. The account of his discoveries, which he entitled

Nuncius Sidereus, the "Sidereal Messenger," was received by the astronomers of the old school with insults and incredulity. Some exclaimed against the impiety of scooping out valleys from the fair face of the moon; some attempted to explain away the satellites of Jupiter as mere appearances caused by reflected light. A professor in the university at Padua argued that as there were only 7 metals, 7 days in the week, and 7 apertures in a man's head, so there could be but 7 planets; and when forced to admit the visibility of the satellites through the telescope, he reasoned that, being invisible to the naked eye, they were useless, and consequently did not exist. Several claimed a prior discovery of the "Jovian planets," and the astronomer Zach, as late as 1788, claimed for the Englishman Thomas Harriot the credit of having observed them on Jan. 16, 1610, some time before Galileo's discovery was made known. According to Sir David Brewster, however, Harriot did not perceive them until Oct. 17. The invention of the compound microscope is ascribed to Galileo, not without reason; Viviani, in his life of the philosopher, tells us that the telescope led Galileo to the construction of this instrument, and that he presented one of his microscopes to the king of Poland in 1612. The grand duke of Tuscany rewarded Galileo's services to science by a present of 1,000 florins, and by making him his philosopher and mathematician with a liberal salary and nominal duties. He now removed to Florence. To guard against future attempts to steal his laurels, he published his subsequent discoveries in enigmas, and thus in the course of the same year he announced that Saturn was "triple," an appearance which Huyghens subsequently showed was caused by that planet's rings. Galileo was the first to notice that Venus exhibits phases like those of the moon; and if not the first to descry spots on the sun's disk, he was at least the first to note their peculiarities, and to infer from them the sun's rotation. Some of these observations were made in 1611 at Rome, which he now visited for the first time, where he erected his telescope in the Quirinal garden belonging to Cardinal Bandini. He was received on this occasion with the highest honors, and became a member of the famous Lincean academy founded by Federigo Cesi near the beginning of the 17th century. In 1612 he combated in his work on the laws of floating bodies the common opinion that the tendency of substances to sink or swim in water depends on their shape. With this period in his life the philosopher may be said to have reached the zenith of his prosperity, while at the same time the malice of his enemies began to acquire a dangerous intensity. The Copernican system, which Galileo had long taught in public. afforded a good pretext for attacking him. The sun's revolution round the earth was thought to be a truth of Scripture. Certain Tuscan ecclesiastics began to preach against the wickedness of sending our world spinning through space, and a sarcastic DominiVOL. VIII.-4

can hurled a sermon at Galileo from the text: Viri Galilæi, quid statis adspicientes in cœlum? "Yemen of Galilee, why stand ye looking up into heaven?" In 1613 Galileo had addressed a letter to his pupil Castelli, showing that the language of the Bible should be interpreted according to popular ideas, and that the Ptolemaic system is really as much at variance with it as the Copernican. This was followed by one to Christina, grand duchess dowager of Tuscany, reiterating his views, and supporting them by quotations from the writings of the fathers. A Dominican, Lorini, laid a copy of the Castelli letter before the Roman inquisition in Feb. 1615, but the inquisitors refused to act in the matter, remarking that by confining himself to the system and its demonstration, and letting alone the Scriptures, Galileo would be secure from molestation. His enemies, however, continued their intrigues, and about the end of 1615 he went to Rome, either to obtain a formal sanction of his opinions, or, as some suppose, in obedience to a summons. His case came again before the holy office in Feb. 1616. He was charged with teaching that the sun is the centre of the planetary system, and interpreting Scripture to suit his own theory. The qualifiers of the inquisition pronounced the obnoxious doctrines "formally heretical, because expressly contrary to Holy Scriptures." Galileo's letters to Castelli and the grand duchess, Copernicus's work on the revolution of the heavenly bodies, and Kepler's epitome of the Copernican theory, were placed on the Index Expurgatorius, whence they were not removed until the time of Benedict XIV.; and Galileo himself, having failed in deference to the holy office, was obliged to promise never again to teach the motion of the earth and the stability of the sun either by speech or writing. He had a gratifying audience of the pope, however, who assured him of his protection, and in 1617 he returned to Florence. A sickness prevented him from observing the 3 comets which appeared in 1618, but he entered warmly into discussions about them, and is supposed to have had the chief share in a lecture delivered by his friend Guiducci and printed in 1619, in which those erratic bodies are held to be only meteors. This discourse was attacked by the Jesuit Grassi under the pseudonyme of Lotario Sarsi, and defended by Galileo in his Saggiatore ("Assayer"), one of the most beautifully written but least sagacious of his works. On the accession of his friend Cardinal Barberini to the pontificate under the title of Urban VIII., he went to Rome to offer his congratulations, arriving in the spring of 1624, and receiving during the 2 months that he remained every mark of esteem and liberality. The pope granted a pension of 100 crowns to him, and one of 60 crowns to his son. Encouraged, perhaps, by the friendly dispositions of the pontiff and the liberal declarations of some of the cardinals relative to the Copernican system, he set about composing a work in which he might sum up all the arguments for his favorite theory. It was

written in the form of dialogues, and accompanied by a preface which was doubtless the most imprudent thing that Galileo ever wrote. In it he treats the inquisition with contempt, charges it by insinuation with ignorance and passion, and covers the decision of 1616 with ridicule. Having ingeniously deceived the censors as to its real character, he managed to procure a license for his book, and it was accordingly published at Florence in 1632 under the title of "Dialogue on the two Principal Systems of the World, the Ptolemaic and Copernican." Such a violation of the injunction could not be overlooked. Galileo was ordered to appear in person at Rome, where he accordingly arrived in Feb. 1633, and took up his quarters with the Tuscan ambassador. His trial was short. The principal ground of complaint was the disobedience of the command of 1616, and the main defence which Galileo seems to have made was that in the years that had elapsed since then he had forgotten that the decree applied not merely to teaching the Copernican doctrine from the Scriptures, but to teaching it in any manner. The sentence was solemnly pronounced, June 22. It set forth the offence of the accused in teaching a condemned proposition, violating his pledge, and obtaining a sanction for his book by improper means, declared him to be vehemently suspected of heresy, required him to abjure his errors and all other heresies against the Catholic church, prohibited his "Dialogue," and condemned him to be imprisoned at the inquisition during pleasure, and to recite once a week for 3 years the 7 penitential psalms. Galileo made his abjuration with all the formality which commonly attended such proceedings. Clad in sackcloth and kneeling, he swore upon the Gospels never again to teach the earth's motion and the sun's stability; he declared his detestation of the proscribed opinions, and promised to perform the penance laid upon him. Then rising from the ground, he is said to have exclaimed in an under tone: E pur si muove-"It does move for all that!" After 4 days' confinement under the eyes of the holy office, Galileo returned to the Tuscan ambassador's, but for the rest of his life he was kept under surveillance. He passed some time in Sienna, in the archbishop's palace, and in December reëntered his own house at Arcetri, near Florence, where he remained until the close of his life. A fresh misfortune soon befell him in the death of his favorite daughter Maria, and this stroke so affected his already broken health that he begged permission to visit Florence for medical assistance. It was only after 4 years (1638) that he obtained it, and then under severe restrictions. He seems now to have paid little attention to astronomy, but other branches of natural philosophy engaged his intellect as successfully as ever. In 1638 his book of "Dialogues on Local Motion," completed 2 years before, which he prized above all his other works, was printed at Amsterdam by Louis Elzevir. In 1636 also he discovered the moon's diurnal libration. He next renewed

an attempt which he had made 20 years before to introduce a method of computing longitudes at sea by means of the satellites of Jupiter, but his negotiations on the subject with Holland failed, and indeed his method is now considered impracticable. In 1687 a disease which had impaired his right eye for some years attacked the left also, and in a few months he became totally blind. The severity of the inquisition was somewhat relaxed in his affliction; he was visited by eminent men of his own and foreign countries, among whom were Milton, Gassendi, and Diodati, and in the last years of his life his pupils Viviani and the celebrated Torricelli formed part of his household. Almost complete deafness afterward came upon him, and at last, while preparing for a continuation of his "Dialogues on Motion," he died of fever and palpitation of the heart.-In person Galileo was of middle size, well formed, with fair complexion and penetrating eyes. He was cheerful, frank, and amiable; frugal and abstemious, but fond of gay company and good wine, and profuse in his hospitality. His domestic life was neither virtuous nor happy. His temper was quick, but placable. His general accomplishments made him a favorite in mixed circles; but though he knew so well how to adapt his conversation to his company, he could not bend himself to circumstances when his favorite scientific theories were in question. Too eager for victory to judge well how to secure it, he damaged his own cause far more than the follies and prejudices which he had to combat. Nevertheless, astronomy owes to him, if not its richest inventions, at least some of its most brilliant discoveries. The telescope in the hands of his predecessors was a mere toy; in his hands it acquired such importance that he is often called its inventor. There was scarcely a part of mechanical philosophy which did not employ his genius with the grandest results, and his scientific writings were marked by a clear, elegant, and spirited style, which he owed to a careful study of the literature of his country. He was a great admirer of Ariosto, whose "Orlando Furioso," it is said, he knew by heart, and wrote severe "Considerations on Tasso" (Venice, 1793), to show that author's imitation of his favorite poet.-The following is a list of his principal works which were printed separately: Operazioni del compasso geometrico e militare (Venice, 1606); Difesa contra alle calumnie ed imposture di Balt. Capra nella considerazione astronomica sopra la nuova stella del 1604 (1607); Nuncius Sidereus (Florence, Venice, and Frankfort, 1610); Discorso intorno alle case che stanno in sul' acqua e che in quella si muovono (Florence, 1612); Epistola ad M. Velserum de Maculis Solaribus (1612); De Maculis Solaribus et Stellis circa Jovem errantibus accuratior Disquisitio (Augsburg, 1612); Istoria e dimostrazioni intorno alle machie solari e loro accidenti (Rome, 1613); Dissertatio de Cometa Anni 1619 (Florence); Il saggiatore (Rome, 1623); Dialogo sopra i due massimi `sistemi

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