and the next day a conflict took place, in which his followers were defeated. Gracchus with a faithful slave fled to the grove of the Furies, where the slave first held the sword to his master's heart and then fell upon it himself. The head of Gracchus was cut off, and his enemy Opimius paid for it with its weight in gold. In the massacre which followed, 3,000 persons perished, their bodies being thrown into the Tiber, and many of the friends of Gracchus were imprisoned.

GRACES, THE (Lat. Gratia, Gr. Xapires), mythological beings, generally described as daughters of Jupiter, but called by some daughters of Apollo, and by others of Bacchus; their maternity is still more undecided. The Spartans and Athenians recognized only two Charites, but Hesiod enumerates three, whom he names Euphrosyne, Aglaia, and Thalia; and this number and nomenclature generally prevailed. The Graces were the goddesses of social festivity, happiness, and mirth, the inspirers of those virtues and amenities which render human intercourse delightful, and the patronesses of whatever is graceful and beautiful in nature or in art. Great poets, painters, and sculptors were the peculiar objects of their favor. The Graces were commonly represented as the companions of other divinities, especially Apollo, Venus, and Amor; and their attributes are made always to harmonize with those of the deity upon whom they attend. Thus as the companion of Apollo they bear musical instruments, while as those of Venus they carry myrtle, roses, or dice. They are usually represented as virgins in the bloom of life, embracing each other, and sometimes appear clothed, sometimes naked.

GRACIAS A DIOS, or GRACIAS, a city of Honduras, capital of the N. W. department of the state, situated on an elevated plain at the foot of a steep escarpment of the mountains of Selaque; pop. about 5,000. It was founded in 1536 by Juan de Chavez, one of the officers of Cortes. The rich mines in its vicinity soon attracted thither a considerable population, and for a time Gracias a Dios was the first city in all Central America. It was made the seat of the audiencia of the confines, ranking with Mexico in political importance, and the seat also of the ecclesiastical establishments of the country. Both, however, were afterward transferred to Guatemala, and thenceforward Gracias subsided into a secondary rank. It still preserves in its churches some traces of its former splendor. Its inhabitants subsist chiefly by agriculture and mining. Formerly all the commerce with Guatemala passed through it from Puerto Caballos, but it now takes a different route through the gulf of Dulce and Isabal. The temperature and climate of Gracias are delightful and salubrious. Immediately in front of the city a stream plunges down the mountain in two leaps, a distance of upward of 1,200 feet, forming a picturesque fall, surpassing the Staubbach of Switzerland in extent and beauty.

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GRACIAS Á DIOS, CAPE, the extreme N. E. point of Central America, at the mouth of the large river Wanks or Segovia, in lat. 15° N., long. 83° 12' W. It was so named by Columbus, when, in his 4th voyage, after beating for many days against head winds and adverse currents, he finally succeeded in turning the angle of the continent, and taking his course southward. There is a harbor at the cape, bearing the same name, but it cannot be entered by large vessels. There is also a village of Sambo Mosquitos here, under a chief or head man, who it is alleged recognizes the authority of the supposititious "king of the Mosquitos." The cape was a famous resort of the pirates when they infested the sea of the Antilles. It is said that the infusion of negro blood, so perceptible in the so called Mosquito Indians, is due to the circumstance that a Ĝuinea slaver was wrecked here toward the close of the 16th century, from which the slaves escaped and intermixed with the Indians.

GRÆVIUS, JOHANN GEORG (GROEFE), a German scholar and critic, born in Naumburg, Jan. 29, 1622, died in Utrecht, Jan. 11, 1703. He had begun to study law at Leipsic, when, meeting with Gronovius at Deventer, he was made by conversation with that scholar so conscious of his own deficiences, especially in classical knowledge, that he determined to begin his education over again and to devote himself only to belleslettres. After remaining 2 years at Deventer, he passed to Amsterdam, where he studied history under Morus and Blondel, and abjured Lutheranism for Calvinism. In 1668 he succeeded Gronovius in the athenæum of Deventer, and in 1661 obtained the chair of eloquence in the academy of Utrecht, to which was attached in 1667 that of politics and history. His lectures were attended by princes and by many of the young nobles of Holland and Germany. Louis XIV. included him in the number of savants to whom he gave pensions, and the universities of Heidelberg, Leyden, and Padua in vain sought to attract him to them by flattering offers. Among his works, all of which bear marks of great care, are editions of Hesiod, Cicero, Catullus, Tibullus, Propertius, Suetonius, and Florus, and Thesauri of Roman and Italian antiquities.

GRÄFE, KARL FERDINAND VON, a German professor of surgery, born in Warsaw, March 8, 1787, died in Hanover, July 4, 1840. He was graduated as a doctor of medicine in Leipsic in 1807. He founded a hospital at Ballenstedt in 1808, and brought the Alexisbad near Anhalt into use. In 1811 he removed to Berlin as professor of surgery. During the war with Napoleon he superintended the military hospitals and lazarettos, and after the restoration of peace (1815) he became a member of the medical staff of the army, with the rank of colonel. Students from all parts of the world came to attend his lectures, and his fame became so well established abroad that he was made the recipient of the hospitalities of the British sovereign on his visit to England. In Paris Dupuytren invited him

to take his place as a lecturer, and the Prussian government ennobled him. In 1840 he was summoned to Hanover to operate upon the eyes of the present king, who is blind, but he suddenly died after his arrival there. The revival of the rhinoplastic process was due in a great measure to the labors of Gräfe, who propounded his system in his work Rhinoplastik (Berlin, 1818). ALBRECHT VON, son of the preceding, one of the most successful and skilful of living oculists, born in Berlin in May, 1828, was educated at the university of his native city. At first he gave his attention chiefly to mathematics and the natural sciences, and afterward to medicine. He prosecuted his studies in Prague, Vienna, and Paris, and devoting himself particularly to ophthalmology, he founded, on his return to Berlin, a private establishment for the treatment of the eyes. Since 1857 he has officiated as professor of his science at the university of Berlin. He has founded on the cases which have come under his personal observation, said to amount to upward of 100,000, a new method of treatment, the theory of which he has as yet only partially unfolded. His school is probably more resorted to than any other in Europe.

GRÄFENBERG, a small village of Austrian Silesia, in the circle of Freiwaldau, noted as the seat of the first hydropathic establishment, founded by Priessnitz in 1828, and since his death in 1851 under the direction of his son-inlaw Ulhazy. Two monuments to Priessnitz have been erected here, one by Hungarians, the other by Frenchmen, and a funeral chapel by his widow.

GRAFTING. See ENGRAFTING.

GRAFTON, a W. co. of N. H., bounded W. by the Connecticut river; area, 1,463 sq. m.; pop. in 1850, 42,343. It has a mountainous surface, containing some of the most celebrated summits of the White mountains, and the Franconia notch. Much of the land is devoted to pasturage, but parts of it are susceptible of high cultivation. The productions in 1850 were 228,799 bushels of Indian corn, 244,177 of oats, 64,359 of wheat, 1,006,237 of potatoes, 1,278,984 lbs. of butter, and 103,001 tons of hay. The county produced more butter, hay, and oats than any other in the state, and more potatoes than any other in the United States. It contained 24 corn and flour mills, 126 saw and planing mills, 16 woollen factories, 16 starch works, 27 tanneries, 3 paper mills, 3 newspaper offices, 88 churches, and 10,836 pupils attending public schools. The northern (N. H.) and the Boston, Concord, and Montreal railroads pass through the county. Organized in 1771. Capital, Haverhill.

GRAFTON, a township of Worcester co., Mass., situated on Blackstone river, 38 m. S. W. of Boston, and comprising several villages, one of which bears the same name; pop. in 1855, 4,409. Its S. part is traversed by Blackstone river and canal and by the Providence and Worcester railroad, its N. part by the Boston and Worcester railroad, and its centre by the Milbury

branch, connecting the 2 other roads. It contains a bank, a loan fund association, and 7 churches, 2 Baptist, 2 Congregational, 2 Methodist, and 1 Roman Catholic. In 1855 it had 7 cotton mills, with $526,500 capital, manufacturing $399,613 worth of goods per annum; 1 machine shop, 1 manufactory of agricultural implements, 1 of railroad cars, and several of boots and shoes, the last employing 822 hands, and making $580,856 worth of boots and shoes.

GRAHAM, ISABELLA, a Christian philanthropist, born in Lanarkshire, Scotland, July 29, 1742, died in New York, July 27, 1814. Her maiden name was Marshall. In 1765 she was married to Dr. John Graham, an army surgeon, and accompanied him with his regiment to Canada, and afterward to Antigua, where he died in 1774. Returning to Scotland, she engaged successfully in teaching, first in Paisley, and subsequently in Edinburgh. In 1789 she came to New York, and established a seminary for young ladies. Before leaving Scotland she originated the "Penny Society," now known as the "Society for the Relief of the Destitute Sick;" and after coming to this country, it was through her efforts in part or entirely that the "Society for the Relief of Poor Widows," the "Orphan Asylum Society," the "Society for Promoting Industry among the Poor," and the first "Sunday School for Ignorant Adults," were established in New York. She aided also in organizing the first missionary society and the first monthly missionary prayer meeting in the city; was the first president of the Magdalen society; systematically visited the inmates of the hospital, and the sick female convicts in the state prison; and to hundreds of families distributed Bibles, and tracts prepared under her own direction, long before there was a Bible society or tract society in New York. She not only gave a 10th part of all her earnings to pious and charitable purposes, but lent small sums, without interest, to persons in humble life, to aid them in their business and in sustaining their families; and in various other ways was as indefatigable in her charity and benevolence, as she was eminent for her piety and social virtues. A memoir of her life and character has been published by the American tract society.

GRAHAM, SIR JAMES ROBERT GEORGE, an English statesman, born in Cumberland, June 1, 1792. He was educated at Westminster school, and at Queen's college, Cambridge, and at the outset of his career was creditably employed in a diplomatic capacity in southern Europe. In 1818 he entered parliament as an ultra-liberal member from Hull, and during the next 2 years showed considerable ability as a debater. At this time and later he wrote and spoke in favor of repealing the corn laws. In the general election of 1826, after an absence of 6 years from parliament, he was returned by the radicals of Carlisle, and upon the accession of Earl Grey to office in 1830 was appointed first lord of the admiralty. He supported the reform bill and other liberal measures of the Grey cabinet, but

resigned office in 1834, and 3 years later was elected in the conservative interest from the Pembroke district. Upon the formation of Sir Robert Peel's ministry in 1841 he was appointed secretary of state for the home department, from which office he retired in 1846. In the Aberdeen cabinet, in 1853, he was reinstated in his former office of first lord of the admiralty, which he retained until Feb. 1855. As a cabinet minister, Sir James has evinced much industry and business capacity, although his measures have in some instances resulted disastrously. In the admiralty he aimed at retrenchments in the naval expenditures the wisdom of which has been severely questioned, and projected a number of improvements in naval architecture which have proved failures. Sir Charles Napier ascribed the inefficiency of the fleet which sailed under his command to the Baltic in 1854 to the incompetency of Sir James Graham, against whom in parliament he directed a bitter attack. While in the home department he rendered himself very unpopular by causing letters addressed to Mazzini to be opened and copied at the general post office, for which he was severely attacked by "Punch" and other liberal prints. After declaring to his constituents in 1841 that he intended to support the corn laws, he aided Sir Robert Peel in repealing them. Upon the dissolution of the Peel cabinet he remained for some years among the so called "Peelites," and of late has announced himself as "one of the great liberal party." In the general election of 1859 he was again returned to parliament from Carlisle.

GRAHAM, JOHN, Viscount Dundee and Lord Graham of Claverhouse, by which latter title he is most generally known, a Scottish soldier, born near Dundee in 1643, killed at the battle of Killiecrankie, July 27, 1689. He was educated at St. Andrew's university, and about 1670 passed over to the continent, where for many years he pursued the career of a soldier of fortune, first in the French and subsequently in the Dutch service. Returning home in 1677 with favorable recommendations from the prince of Orange to Charles II., he was appointed captain of one of the 3 troops of horse that the king was then raising to enforce compliance with the established religion in Scotland. In this employment he won an unenviable notoriety for the merciless severity with which he pursued the Covenanters of the western lowlands, where for many generations his name was held in execration. His troopers, selected from the most profligate of the church party, zealously seconded the efforts of their leader, whom they equalled in barbarity and profanity. In June, 1679, Claverhouse was defeated by a body of Covenanters at Drumclog, but he was revenged subsequently at the battle of Bothwell bridge, and by inflicting new cruelties upon the inhabitants of the western shires. In Nov. 1688, a week after the landing of the prince of Orange, he was created by James II. Viscount Dundee and Lord Graham of Claverhouse. Attending the

convention parliament which assembled in Edinburgh soon after to arrange the succession to the crown, he became alarmed for his personal safety, and fled with a body of horse from the city. Putting himself at the head of several disaffected highland clans and of a body of Irish marauders, he routed the king's troops commanded by Gen. Mackay, in the pass of Killiecrankie, but fell by a chance shot in the moment of victory. His qualities as a soldier and a politician, which were conspicuously displayed during the last few months of his life, have diverted attention somewhat from his many criminal acts; and Sir Walter Scott, in his "Old Mortality," has presented a vigorous though highly colored picture of him. One of the latest attempts to relieve his character from the odium which attaches to it was made by Professor Aytoun in the appendix to his "Lays of the Scottish Cavaliers." See also "Memorials and Letters illustrative of the Life and Times of Jolin Graham of Claverhouse, Viscount Dundee, by Mark Napier," vol. i. (Edinburgh, 1859).

GRAHAM, JOHN ANDREW, LL.D., an American advocate and author, born in Southbury, Conn., June 10, 1764, died in New York, Aug. 9, 1841. Immediately after his admission to the Connecticut bar in 1785, he removed to Rutland, Vt. He was a zealous adherent of the Protestant Episcopal church, and in 1794 put in nomination for bishop of Vermont the Rev. Samuel Peters, LL.D., who was his intimate friend. The nomination was followed by an immediate formal election, and Dr. Peters being in England, Mr. Graham was despatched thither as agent of the diocese to make application to the English bishops for his consecration, and he urged the suit "most ably and assiduously," but unsuccessfully. He returned to Vermont and reported his proceedings to the Episcopal convention in 1795. In 1796 he returned to England, and in 1797 there published, in admirable style with a portrait of himself, an 8vo. volume entitled "Descriptive Sketch of the Present State of Vermont," and received the degree of LL.D. from the royal college of Aberdeen. Returning to Rutland, Vt., in 1800, he resided there until 1803, when he removed to Washington, D. C., and from thence to New York, where he lived from 1805 till his death. He became distinguished in New York for his ability in the defence of criminals, and a small volume of his ablest speeches was published in 1812. In 1828 he published his "Memoirs of John Horne Tooke," in which he endeavored to prove the identity of Tooke with the celebrated Junius.

GRAHAM, JOSEPH, an American revolutionary soldier, born in Pennsylvania, Oct. 13, 1759, died in Lincoln co., N. Č., Nov. 12, 1836. In early childhood he removed with his mother to Charlotte, N. C., where he was educated. At the age of 19 years (1778) he entered the 4th regiment of the regular troops of N. Carolina, and in the latter part of that year and in the succeeding year was actively employed in S. Carolina and Georgia under Gen. Lincoln. In 1780,

geographical societies. The island was then from 1 to 1 miles in circumference, and its highest point about 180 feet above the surface. A deep circular crater lay between two longitudinal hills, by which it was entirely shut in except for about 250 yards on its S. E. side, where a bank of only 3 feet in height separated it from the sea. The crater was filled with boiling salt water of dingy red color, from which arose a nauseous and oppressive vapor. The only gas evolved in large quantity, according to the paper of Dr. John Davy ("Philosophical Transactions," 1832, p. 243), was carbonic acid. Some authorities have made it about this time to be 3 miles in circumference with a maximum height exceeding 200 feet. On Aug. 25 it was reduced to 2 miles, and on Sept. 3 to only of a mile, with a maximum height of 107 feet. The crater was then 780 yards in circumference. The materials which composed the island were scoriæ, pumice, and lapilli, arranged in regular strata which sloped steeply away from the crater. The only substances found not of volcanic nature were fragments of dolomitic limestone. No lava was ever seen to flow, and no solid beds were formed which could resist the action of the waves. By these all the loose materials were washed away, so that at the close of October it may be said to have entirely disappeared. Two years afterward Capt. Swinburne found a dangerous reef at the spot, in the centre of which was a black rock of the diameter of 26 fathoms, from 9 to 11 feet under water. Around it, extending 60 fathoms to deep water, are banks of black volcanic stones and loose sand. The black rock in the centre is supposed by Lyell to be solid lava which rose up in the crater and became consolidated and now exists as a dike. Another shoal 450 feet S. W. of the great reef marks the spot where another outbreak of boiling water and steam was observed in the month of August during these convulsions. This island has been called by no fewer than 7 names, and is sometimes still known by that of Ferdinanda.

GRAHAME, JAMES, a Scottish poet, born in Glasgow, April 22, 1765, died near that city, Sept. 14, 1811. He was educated at the university of Glasgow, went to Edinburgh, and became a writer to the signet in 1791, and a member of the faculty of advocates in 1795. But the legal profession had always been distasteful to him, and in the spring of 1809 he went to England, where he was ordained a minister of the established church. His principal poetical works are: "The Sabbath," "Mary, Queen of Scots," "British Georgics," and "The Birds of Scotland."

GRAHAME, JAMES, a Scottish historian, born in Glasgow, Dec. 21, 1790, died in London, July 3, 1842. He studied at St. John's college, Cambridge, but soon terminated his connection with that institution, and after preparatory studies was in 1812 admitted an advocate at the Scottish bar. For nearly 14 years he practised his profession, until he was obliged through

ill health to seek a more genial climate. Settling in the south of England in the spring of 1826, he devoted himself to the preparation of a history of the United States, a work which he had commenced about the beginning of the previous year. His early education, his religious views, which were those professed by the Scotch Covenanters and Puritans, and his zeal in the cause of civil liberty, combined to render the subject attractive to him, and his interest and enthusiasm increased with the progress of the work. In 1827 the first two volumes were published, and in 1836 a new edition appeared (4 vols. 8vo.), bringing the history down to the year 1776. The thoroughly American spirit in which the work was written interfered with its success in England, and for several years it attracted little notice in the United States. In 1839, however, the author received from Harvard college the degree of LL.D., and in 1841 a genial notice of his history from the pen of William H. Prescott appeared in the "North American Review." Four years later an edition of his work was published in Philadelphia (4 vols. 8vo.), succeeded in 1846 and 1848 by editions in 2 vols. each, that of 1846 containing a memoir of the author by Josiah Quincy. Mr. Quincy also published a work entitled "The Memory of the late James Grahame, the Historian of the United States, vindicated from the Charges of Mr. Bancroft" (8vo., Boston, 1846). In 1837 Mr. Grahame, who had for some years previous resided at Nantes, France, was urged to continue his history to the close of the revolutionary war. He began to collect materials for this undertaking, the design of which excited in him an unusual degree of interest, when he was compelled by ill health toward the close of the year to abstain from literary labor of all kinds. His last work was a pamphlet entitled, "Who is to Blame? or Cursory Review of the American Apology for American Accession to Negro Slavery" (8vo., London, 1842). The subject was one which had excited his attention for many years, and in reference to which he had testified his sincerity by joining with his children in liberating a number of slaves they had jointly inherited from his wife. He wrote in addition pamphlets on various social and religious questions, including a "Defence of the Scottish Presbyterians and Covenanters against the Author of the Tales of my Landlord;'" but the absorbing study of the best years of his life was American history, and such was his predilection for the American people that he delighted to call himself an American by adoption, and declared that his daughter, whom he tenderly loved, was "hardly dearer to him than America and American renown." His "History of the United States" is written, according to the testimony of Chancellor Kent, "with great gravity and dignity, moderation and justice."

GRAHAMSTOWN, a town of Cape Colony, capital of the district of Albany, 22 m. N. N.W. of Bathurst, and 600 m. distant from Cape