of the legislative assembly, where he sided with the conservatives.

GOUT, a painful disease affecting principally the fibrous tissues about the smaller joints, and intimately connected with an excess of uric acid and its compounds in the blood. Various names have been given according to the part affected, as podagra when in the feet, chiragra when in the hands, sciatica when in the thigh, &c.; but all such, and probably many cases of neuralgia accompanied by oxalic deposits in the urine, are mere forms of one disease. A common attack of acute gout is generally preceded by uneasiness, indigestion, loss of appetite, nausea and vomiting, biliary derangement, dull pains or numbness in the parts to be affected, often with feverish symptoms; but in some cases, on the contrary, the disease comes on in the midst of apparent health and well-being, and occasionally at night during refreshing sleep. In most cases it makes itself known by an acute pain in the metatarso-phalangeal joint of the great toe; different sufferers compare this to the sensations produced by the contact of a drop of cold water, or of cold or heated metal, or by twisting, dislocation, or laceration, as by a nail or wedge driven into the foot; this is accompanied by feverish symptoms, urinary sediment, extreme tenderness, restlessness, involuntary muscular contractions, sleeplessness, and perspiration; the affected joint is swollen, red, and hot. This series of symptoms may last 4 or 5 days, to be followed after a day or two by 3 or 4 others, continuing in all from 2 to 3 weeks; the severity of the attack, its persistence, its seat, and its metastases vary according to circumstances. This first warning past, the luxurious epicure may not receive another, even if he persist in his indulgences, for months or perhaps years; but the second comes, and the third, and so on, the intervals between the attacks becoming less; though the pain be less severe, the joints are more discolored and swollen, with ædema and chalky deposits in their neighborhood; and by a sudden retrocession toward the internal vital organs, life may be seriously threatened. When gout becomes chronic the attacks are more irregular, less severe, more frequent and sudden, leaving one joint for another after slight exposure to cold and moisture, excess at table, or vivid emotions; in this form, the continuance of the pain, and the fear of injuring the gouty joints, render its subjects cross, fretful, and disagreeable, though persons thus affected are often able to devote themselves to serious study and important private and public business; gouty fingers have signed state documents of great moment, and deformed and almost anchylosed toes have borne their owners painfully and slowly to conferences where a people's happiness was at stake. The pathology of gout reduces itself chiefly to the abnormal presence of uric acid in the blood, and to the deposit of urate of soda in the fibrous tissue around the joints and sheaths of tendons. Gout is rare before the age of 20, and men of robust constitution and of a mixed sanguine

and bilious temperament are far more liable to it than females; it may be inherited, and seems independent of climate except so far as it influences the diet of a people, the northern races from necessity being generally less temperate in the use of stimulating food and drinks than southern nations. A life of indolent sensuality, amid the excitements and passions of civilization in cities, and the use of highly seasoned animal food with alcoholic stimulants, are the predisposing causes to this disease, the only consolation of which in the minds of its victims is that it belongs almost exclusively (at least in its worst manifestations) to the wealthy, the aristocratic, the fashionable, and the luxurious. A person may have a gouty diathesis, and die from the evils arising from it, without having experienced what is popularly understood as a "fit of the gout;" the gout poison (uric acid) may be eliminated from the blood in any organ rich in fibrous tissue, and from recent researches it would seem that many cases of neuralgia (sciatica and hemicrania), lithiasis, and oxaluria, with oxalate of lime deposits in the urine, are symptoms of the same morbific action, an excess of uric acid in the blood either from over production or accumulation; the habits and manner of life, the tissues most affected, and the peculiar urinary deposit, indicate the identity of the above forms of disease, and the propriety of the same treatment in all. Organic chemistry teaches that in the gouty diathesis, with excess of urates and oxalates, there is a deficiency of oxygen in the system; hence the uric acid may remain unchanged, or may be oxidized only into oxalic acid, the latter remaining as such instead of undergoing further oxidation and being converted into carbonic acid and urea, in which forms it can be removed from the organism. As the urate of soda is the principal cause of the pain in gouty joints, so oxalate of lime may be the immediate producer of the pains of sciatica. This view of the correlation of gout and neuralgia is fully treated by Dr. Easton, in the "Glasgow Medical Journal" for Oct. 1858. We find gout attacking the upper ranks of society, who indulge in a highly nitrogenous diet, which tends to produce uric acid in excess, even though the normal quantity should be duly eliminated, and the disease assumes the form of urate of soda deposits in the joints; in the lower classes, consuming less animal and stimulating food, and taking in more oxygen from their daily exercise, the uric acid becomes the oxalic, and the gouty diathesis manifests itself in neuralgia with oxalate of lime in abundance in the urine. By many authors rheumatism is considered closely allied to gout; and accordingly cases of the latter disease affecting especially fibrous tissues are sometimes called rheumatic gout, a pathological hybrid as absurd and impossible as scarlatinic measles would be, as Dr. Garrod has clearly shown; a gouty person may have also rheumatism, but the two diseases are distinct and cannot pass the one into the other, the former having as a promi

nent character an excess of uric, and the latter of lactic acid. There are few diseases which have had more empirical remedies extolled for their cure than gout; almost every drastic purgative, diuretic, tonic, and narcotic, has been pressed into the service, either for external or internal use. To say nothing here of soothing topical applications, colchicum has enjoyed, and deservedly, a great reputation in the treatment of gout and neuralgia, between the attacks and in their chronic forms; it is most efficacious when it acts upon the skin and bowels. The acetate of potash and other alkalies are in favor with many both for their diuretic property and as alkalizing the acid in the blood and urine. Nitro-muriatic acid has been found of advantage for supplying the oxygen necessary for the conversion of the uric into oxalic acid, and the latter into carbonic acid and urea. The judicious use of purgatives, abstinence from highly nitro genous food and stimulating drinks, attention to hygienic rules as regards pure air, exercise, regular habits of labor and sleep, and avoiding exposure to dampness, cold, and fatigue of body or mind, are absolutely necessary as aids in the treatment of this disease, whatever may be the peculiar theory of the physician as to its nature and special seat.

GOUVION SAINT CYR, LAURENT, a French marshal, born in Toul, April 13, 1764, died in Hyères, March 10, 1830. He studied the fine arts, but after Aug. 10, 1782, enlisted among the volunteers who rushed to the invaded frontier. Being elected captain by his companions, he was attached to the staff of Gen. Custine, and in the course of one year rose to the rank of general of division. In 1796 he commanded one of the divisions of the army on the Rhine under Moreau. In 1798 he was sent to Rome to reestablish discipline in the army, which had nearly revolted against Masséna, and succeeded in this; but the commissaries of the convention procured his recall. After the 18th Brumaire he served under Moreau, and defeated Kray at Biberach. In 1801 he was sent as ambassador to Spain, and in 1802 commanded the French army of observation in southern Italy. He had proved too independent in his conduct and sentiments to please Napoleon, who assigned him to employment which gave him no opportunity of gaining distinction. In 1808 he was sent to Catalonia, and relieved Barcelona in spite of the scanty resources placed at his disposal; but being dissatisfied with the treatment he received at the hands of the emperor, he sent in his resignation and left his post without waiting for his successor. This being considered a breach of discipline, he was cashiered and ordered to his country seat, where he remained for 2 years in a kind of imprisonment. In 1811 he was called back to service, commanded a corps in the great army which invaded Russia, and defeated Prince Wittgenstein at Polotzk on the Duna, Aug. 7, 1812; for this victory he was made a marshal. During 1813 he made a heroic stand at Dresden, signing at last an hon

orable capitulation. This, however, was not sanctioned by Prince Schwartzenberg, and he and his troops were sent prisoners to Austria. He consequently took no part in the events which marked the fall of the empire. He gave in his adhesion to the Bourbons, and on the 2d restoration became minister of war under Talleyrand, and again, Sept. 12, 1817. He retired in 1821, and devoted his leisure hours to the preparation of his Mémoires; the last volumes were published after his death in 1831.

GOVONA, ROSA, a philanthropic Italian woman, founder of the establishment delle Rosine at Turin, born in Mondovi in 1716, died in Turin, Feb. 28, 1776. She was left an orphan without fortune at an early age, and supported herself from childhood by her own labor. Having accidentally met and saved from suicide a friendless and suffering girl, the incident suggested to her a plan for uniting many destitute young girls into a society so that they could obtain the means of subsistence by their labor. She carried her purpose into effect first at Mondovi, and in 1756 in Turin, and with so much success that she received the approbation and aid of the government, the king himself providing her with a large building, and giving the establishment the name of the Rosines. Similar establishments were soon founded under her direction in other Italian cities, Novara, Fossano, Savigliano, and Chiesi, which are still flourishing, all of them being dependent upon the central one at Turin. A monument with an appropriate inscription marks the tomb of Rosa Govona in the chapel of the Rosines.

GOWER, JOHN, an English poet, born, according to popular tradition, in Yorkshire, though other authorities make him a native of Kent or of Wales, about 1825, died in 1408. He was a gentleman of considerable estate, and appears to have studied law and to have contracted a friendship with Chaucer. It has been said, but on insufficient proof, that he attained the dignity of chief justice of the court of common pleas. Like Chaucer, he was a Lancastrian, and like him also a censurer of the vices of the clergy. According to Tyrwhitt the intimacy between the friends was interrupted shortly before their death, but this is not certain. Chaucer dedicates his "Troilus and Cressida" to Gower, calling him "moral Gower," and the latter in his Confessio Amantis introduces Venus calling Chaucer "my disciple and my poete." Gower's chief works are the Speculum Meditantis, a treatise on the duties of married life, in French verse, in 10 books; the Vox Clamantis, a poem in 7 books, describing in Latin elegiacs the insurrection of the commons under Richard II.; and the Confessio Amantis, an English poem, said to have been written at the suggestion of Richard II., consisting of 8 books and a prologue, in octosyllabic verse, interspersed with Latin elegiacs and prose tables of contents, and comprising an illustrative collection of moral and metaphysical reflections, with stories, spun out to tedi

ous length. Of these works the 1st is supposed to have perished, the 2d exists in manuscript copies, and the 3d, which was finished in 1393, was first published by Caxton in 1493. A new edition, with a life of the author and a glossary, by Dr. Reinbold Pauli, appeared in London in 1857 (3 vols. 8vo.). Some smaller poems of no great merit are preserved in MS. in the library of Trinity college, Cambridge; and Warton discovered in the library of the marquis of Stafford a volume of balades in French, which was printed in 1818 by Lord Gower for the Roxburgh club. Gower is known chiefly by his Confessio Amantis, which was undoubtedly suggested by Chaucer's English poems. Hallam says: "He is always sensible, polished, perspicuous, and not prosaic in the worst sense of the word." In the latter part of his life he was afflicted with blindness.

GOYANNA, a town of Brazil, in the province of Pernambuco, on the river Goyanna, 35 m. N. W. of Olindo, and 12 m. from the sea: pop. 6,000.

GOYAZ, a central province of Brazil, between lat. 6° and 20° S.; area, 313,000 sq. m.; pop. in 1853, 120,000; in 1856, according to government returns, which, however, are not to be trusted, 180,000. The surface is mountainous, and intersected by numerous rivers. The soil, except near the rivers, is not remarkable for fertility. The chief productions are cotton, timber, and cattle.-GOYAZ, the capital of the above province, is situated on the Vermelho, 680 m. N. W. of Rio de Janeiro; pop. 7,000.

GOZLAN, LEON, a French dramatist and littérateur, born in Marseilles in 1806. His most popular productions are: La goutte de lait (1848), Le gâteau des reines (1855-'6), Il faut que jeunesse se paie (his best comedy), and Un petit bout d'oreille (1857). Among his tales and novels are: Le médecin du Pecq (new ed. 1858), La famille Lambert (new ed. 1858, dramatized in 1857), Les maîtresses de Paris, &c. GRAAL, or GRAIL, THE HOLY (in old French san gréal, in old English sancgreall, either from Fr. saint, holy, and the Celtic greal, Provençal grazal, and med. Lat. gradalis, a vase or cup, or from the French sang réal, the "real blood" of Christ), one of the leading themes of medieval romance, fabled to have been the cup from which at our Saviour's last supper he drank the wine, and gave to his disciples to drink, saying: "This is my blood." The cup was preserved by Joseph of Arimathea, who received into it also the blood that flowed from the side of Jesus on the cross, and afterward preserved it with pious care as a precious relic. Such is the account given in the apocryphal Gospel of Nicodemus, from which time both ecclesiastical and profane writers are silent concerning it for many centuries. In the 12th century it reappears, clothed with marvellous attributes, the central subject of the prophecies of Merlin, and the object of the adventurous quest of all the knights of the round table. The legend assumed manifold forms in a great diversity of romances. Ac

cording to one of the earliest traditions, it was made of a single precious stone, possessed miraculous life-giving powers, had originally been brought from heaven by angels, and was preserved by a society of chosen knights in a temple on the unapproachable mountain, Montsalvage. It seems to have been associated with the contests between the Moors and Christians in Spain, and with the foundation of the order of templars. In the Arthurian romances Joseph of Arimathea is confounded with a missionary and bishop named Joseph, mentioned in the chronicles as having been sent in the 4th century by St. Augustine from Africa to Britain, and said to have crossed the seas from Judæa, guided only by the flaps of his garments which he trailed as a rudder. On his arrival in Britain he consecrated his son first bishop of the country, and made his other relatives Christian kings, the successors of the exterminated or converted pagan kings. It is related that after the death of Christ he had been imprisoned by the Jews for 50 years, but had been kept by the holy graal in perpetual youth. He was released by the personal aid of the Saviour, who taught him the words of the mass, and bade him renew every day the sacrament of the last supper. The holy graal was the last cup from which he had drunk, and contained the last drops of blood that he had shed on the cross, and its possessor alone had power to confer on other chalices made in its likeness its own mysterious power to effect the transubstantiation. Thus the holy graal lay at the foundation of the exercise of the Christian priesthood. Among the privileges which the holy graal conferred on its possessor was that of perpetual youth. It was however required of him that he should be a perfect man, and a virgin. In some forms of the legend the vessel remained in the care of Joseph of Arimathea; more frequently he is said to have died after several centuries, and after bestowing his authority and the holy graal on his son; the latter also preferred the joys of heaven to an eternal life on earth, and in like manner consecrated one of his relatives in his place. The last was a contemporary of King Arthur, and, unmindful of his charge, sinned, and the sacred vessel fled from him, and was lost. To find and recover it was the task which the knights of the round table imposed on themselves. The quest was long and adventurous, because the vessel changed its place, and always escaped even from the sight of every one who did not possess perfect purity. At length, according to Sir Thomas Malory's compilation, Sir Lancelot reached "the doore of the chamber wherin the holy sancgreall was." He was warned to depart when the door opened, but nevertheless he dared to look in, "and saw a table of silver, and the holy vessel covered with red samite, and many angels about it, whereof one of them held a candell of wax burning, and the other held a crosse and the ornaments of the alter." He ventured to enter, but when he came nigh the table of silver "he felt a breath, that him thought was

intermeddled with fire, which smote him so sore in the visage that him thought it all tobrent his visage, and therewith he fell to the ground, and had no power to rise." He lay "twentie-foure dayes and as many nights as a dead man," and recovered only to return to King Arthur's court, and to abandon further quest. It was reserved to Sir Galahad, who possessed all the requisite perfection of purity, to achieve the holy graal. He was admitted to view it, but "began to tremble right sore when the deadly flesh began to behold the spirituall things. Then he held up both his hands toward heaven, and said: Lord, I thanke thee, for now I see that which hath beene my desire many a day. Now, blessed Lord, would I no longer live, if it might please thee, good Lord."" His death followed, and immediately after the holy graal was carried up to heaven. "Sithence was there never no man so hardy for to say that hee had seene the sancgreal." In other romances Sir Percival is distinguished in the place of Sir Galahad. At a later period several churches in France and Italy claimed to possess the holy graal, and in 1101, the crusaders obtained a cup which was for a time identified with it, and which is still preserved in the cathedral of Genoa.-The Queste du Saint Graal is one of the longest of the 5 great romances of the cycle of King Arthur. The Parcival and Titurel of Wolfram von Eschenbach treat the same subject. See also Boisserée, Ueber die Beschreibung des Tempels des heiligen Graal (Munich, 1834).

GRABBE, CHRISTIAN DIETRICH, a German dramatist, born in Detmold, Dec. 14, 1801, died there, Sept. 12, 1836. His best dramas are: Don Juan und Faust, Friedrich Barbarossa, Aschenbrödel, and Die Hermannsschlacht.

GRACCHUS, TIBERIUS SEMPRONIUS, a Roman statesman, born about 168 B. C., or according to Plutarch 5 years later, died in 133 B. C. His father, Tiberius Gracchus, had been censor, consul, and a successful commander, but was even more renowned for his virtues, says Plutarch, than for his public honors. The mother of the Gracchi, Cornelia, was a daughter of Scipio Africanus. She had 12 children, 9 of whom died young, leaving her two sons and one daughter, Sempronia, who was married to Scipio Africanus the younger. Tiberius, the eldest son, carefully educated by accomplished Greek instructors, and a fine speaker, was renowned even in youth, and fought with distinction under Scipio Africanus at the siege of Carthage, being the first to mount the walls at the storming of that city. As soon as his age allowed he was chosen into the college of augurs. Appius Claudius sought and obtained him as the husband of his daughter. Tiberius went as quæstor with the consul Mancinus against the Numantines; and when that consul by his misconduct had nearly lost his army, Gracchus negotiated a treaty which saved 20,000 Romans. But the senate refused to be bound by the treaty; they even resolved to send back Mancinus with

all his officers to the enemy. The people interfered, saved the officers, and only the consul was given up. This action on the part of the people, it is said, won them the sympathy of Tiberius. On his way to Spain through Etruria, Gracchus had been struck by the solitude of that once populous region. He saw that the great proprietors had driven out the small farmers; only slaves and cattle filled its fertile territory He now resolved to revive the Licinian law, and became the friend of the people. His mother, it is said, encouraged him to enter into politics, and complained that she was known as the mother-in-law of Scipio rather than the mother of the Gracchi. Gracchus, having consulted with his father-in-law, with Mucius Scævola, the famous lawyer, and others, now proposed to revive, with a few modifications, a forgotten law passed 232 years before, the effect of which would be to take away from the rich the excess of the public lands held by them above a certain limit. He would allow to each man only 500 jugera (about 300 acres); and if he had two sons, they might hold 250 jugera each. Some compensation for buildings was to be made to the holders from the public treasury, and 3 commissioners were to be appointed to carry out the law. The surplus taken from the rich was to be divided among the landless. Tiberius was elected tribune 133 B. C., and proposed to the tribes this law, known as the agrarian law. The rich optimates opposed it with violence. Some of the ancient aristocracy sustained Gracchus, but the majority of the senate hated him. They persuaded one of the tribunes, M. Octavius, to oppose his veto to the law. This checked the reformer, but in turn he suspended the functions of every officer in the state, and scaled up the public treasury. The nobles, however, still resisted. The reformer determined to depose Octavius by the votes of the tribes who had elected him. The voting went on until 17 of the 35 tribes had voted for his deposition, when Gracchus once more tried persuasion. Octavius had been his friend. He besought him to yield; he embraced, he kissed him; he reminded him of their former friendship, and offered to repay him for all the land he might be forced to lose. Octavius would have relented, but the optimates prevented him. He was deposed, and Gracchus sent an officer to drag him from the tribunal. The people crowded around the deposed tribune, and in the tumult one of the servants of Octavius was killed. The new law having now been passed, 3 commissioners, Tiberius Gracchus, his father-in-law Appius Claudius, and his young brother Caius, then serving under Scipio in Spain, were appointed. The senate would allow Tiberius only a denarius and a half (about 20 cents) for his daily expenses as commissioner. Both parties were now excited to fierce hostility. A friend of Tiberius happening to die about this time, it was believed that he had been poisoned by the nobles, and Gracchus went about attended by a body guard of his friends. Attalus, king of

Pergamus, died at this moment, leaving his treasures and his kingdom to the Romans. Gracchus at once proposed that the money should be given to stock the farms of the new settlers under his law, and that the kingdom should be managed by the people instead of the senate. These measures aroused anew the corrupt aristocracy. They resolved that Gracchus must die. They accused him of aspiring to be king of Rome; the base Pompeius asserted that he had already received from Pergamus a diadem and royal attire. It was illegal for a tribune to be chosen two years successively, but Gracchus, conscious of danger, became a candidate for the next year, to shelter himself under the sanctity of the tribunate. To gain the support of the people, he proposed, as his future measures, to shorten the term of military service, and to take the judicial power from the senate and give it to the knights. Paterculus says he also intended to extend the Roman franchise to all Italy, but this is probably an error. The election for tribunes came on in June. The nobles had evidently planned his murder. On the day of election Scipio Nasica led a crowd of senators, who drove back the people, and assassinated Gracchus in front of the temple of Jupiter. His body was thrown into the Tiber, and many of his friends were put to death or banished. His ill-fated career lasted but 7 months. His party, however, did not die with him. Scipio Nasica was sent abroad on an embassy by the senate to withdraw him from the rage of the people, and new commissioners were intrusted with the execution of the laws of Gracchus.-CAIUS SEMPRONIUS, brother of the preceding, born about 159, died in 121 B. C. He married the daughter of P. Licinius Crassus, who on the death of Tiberius was chosen commissioner in his place. Caius made in early youth several remarkable speeches, which placed him in the front rank of the orators of Rome. He particularly opposed the law of M. Julius Pennus, which required all aliens to leave Rome. He next went as quæstor with the consul L. Aurelius Orestes to Sardinia, where he was distinguished for his valor, equity, and self-control. The senate, however, still feared him as the avenger of his brother, and sought to detain him a third year in Sardinia. But he returned to Rome about the middle of the year 124. The censors summoned him before them for this conduct, but he successfully defended himself. He now resolved to become a candidate for the tribuneship in spite of his mother's prayers, who begged him to live to be the support of her old age. He thought that his brother's spirit had appeared to him in Sardinia, and said: "Caius, why do you delay? You must die like myself in defence of the rights of the people." Caius was more ardent in temperament than Tiberius. He spoke with greater force; his gesticulation was studied, his voice modulated by untiring care. He was the finest speaker of his time, and many critics preferred his terse elo

quence, full of natural warmth, to the diffuse rhetoric of Cicero. He became a tribune in 123, and first sought to avenge Tiberius. He proposed a law aimed at Popillius, who had persecuted the followers of his brother, "that any magistrate who had put to death or banished a citizen without trial, should be liable to public prosecution." Popillius fled from Rome, and the tribes banished him from Italy. Caius also prepared a measure attacking Octavius, the tribune who had opposed Tiberius and been deposed. But his mother interfered, and he withheld his law. He next proposed and passed what were afterward known as the Sempronian laws. He revived the agrarian law of Tiberius, with the addition of a system of colonization; gave monthly supplies of food to the people at a low price; built extensive granaries, the ruins of which were seen in the middle ages; took the judicial power from the senate, and made 300 of the knights judges; directed that the provinces of the consuls and prætors should be determined before their election; organized the province of Asia, giving the control of it to the people; made new roads in various parts of Italy, erected milestones, and commenced that great system of public improvement which was perfected by the emperors. At the tribunitian elections for the next year, Caius did not offer himself as a candidate, but the tribes elected him, which they did legally, as fewer than 10 candidates offered. Gracchus was now the supreme ruler of Rome. The tribunitian office under his energy grew to unaccustomed influence. He showed great administrative ability, directing the attention of the nation to public improve ments, and winning the popular favor by his affability and benevolence. He now proposed or projected a political measure which offended the citizens of Rome; this was the extension of the Roman franchise to all Italy. The senate at once felt their advantage, and persuaded M. Livius Drusus, one of the tribunes, to veto the new law. Then Drusus outbid Gracchus in the popular favor by offering to found at once 12 colonies, of 3,000 persons each, who were to have their allotments free. Gracchus having proposed to colonize a spot near the deserted site of Carthage, the senate sent him thither to oversee the new colony. When he returned he found much of his popularity gone, and although he removed his residence from the Palatine hill to a house near the forum, and offered to enroll 6,000 colonists for the Junonian colony, he could not prevent the election of two of his bitterest enemies to the consulship. In the next tribunitian elections Gracchus was left out. Opimius became consul in 121, and the life of the reformer was in danger. It was proposed to rescind the law authorizing his Carthaginian colony, and when the measure came to be voted upon, in the tumult one of the opposite party was slain by a follower of Gracchus. The senate declared the reformer and his friends public enemies. Both parties armed,