over, the ice, without being broken up, was observed not to be interrupted in its movement by the contracted passages through which it was sometimes forced to pass, nor by solid hills of rock, which lay like islands in its path. The theory maintained by De Charpentier, and supported by Agassiz in his Etudes sur les glaciers, was that the glacier slid upon its bed, not necessarily in large bodies pushed on by gravitation, but that different portions were impelled by different degrees of force, arising from the expansion of the water congealing in all the fissures and capillary tubes of the ice into which it found its way. The facts developed by Prof. Forbes-that the motion was greatest in the warm summer weather, when the temperature did not descend below the freezing point, and that it did not cease when the ice was no longer liquefied in the cold of winter-demanded some new explanation. With the other phenomena they were regarded by him as sufficient to establish the fact that ice in large bodies is not a brittle solid, but that it possesses, particularly when saturated with water, so much plasticity, that with time it can yield to a stupendous and steadily exerted force, and move somewhat like a body of viscous pitch or lava, which, while it appears brittle when suddenly struck, can yet mould itself in the mass to the surface upon which it rests. By this theory, which was generally received even by those who first opposed it, all the difficulties attending the explanation of the movement disappear. It was confirmed by a simple experiment made by Mr. Christie, secretary to the royal society. He filled with water a 10-inch hollow shell of iron, the shell itself being beside 14 inches thick, and exposed this to severe cold. As the water expanded in freezing, a cylinder of ice was pushed up through the fuse hole, and it continued to increase in length as the water continued to freeze. As the outer portions of the water must have been first converted into ice, it is plain that it was this so called solid material which was forced through the narrow aperture and made to assume the form of a cylinder of its diameter. But the peculiar nature of this quality of mobility belonging to ice has been more perfectly explained, together with some of the other phenomena of glaciers, by the recent researches of Professors Tyndall and Huxley of the royal institution, an account of which is published in the "Philosophical Magazine," vol. xv. (4th series), 1858. The property of particles of ice when exposed to higher temperatures than the freezing point to adhere, and under pressure to unite in one mass, was observed by Prof. Faraday, and was afterward made the subject of various experiments by Messrs. Tyndall and Huxley. They found that compact transparent ice might be crushed to fragments, and these be made by a hydraulic press to assume in a few seconds of time the shape of any mould, recovering in their new form perfect solidity and transparency. straight bar of ice was also bent into a semi A circular form by using a succession of 4 moulds of gradually increasing curvature. As the prism conformed itself to these, cracks were produced, and crackling sounds were emitted, reminding one of those which are so often noticed among the phenomena of glaciers. It is by reference to this before unobserved property of ice that the movement and unbroken continuity of glaciers and of their branches are now explained. The glaciers from their very source present a series of changes of structure, which have been critically observed and traced, and in some instances illustrated and explained by experiments on a small scale with other materials. The snowy region, known by the French term nevé, is formed of dry and granular snow, which extends for miles, sometimes broken up by chasms of immense dimensions, and at others presenting no irregularities of surface such as are common to the glacier below, no streams, crevices, moraines, or cones. The snow lies in strata, which reach to great depth, each representing the accumulation of a single year, and the lowest observed the most dense and approaching the blue color of ice. These bodies move onward to form the glacier proper; and as they pass into this, their material assumes more and more the character of compact ice. But a remarkable and peculiar feature is the veined or laminated structure, real, or apparent only, which it assumes. This is noticed in the walls of the fissures, and is also displayed upon the surface of the glacier itself, when this has been wasted by rain. Thin laminæ of transparent blue ice alternate with others of white porous ice, and standing together in a vertical position the edges of the former project a little above those of the latter, which more readily melt, and thus a ribbed appearance is produced. The direction of the lamina is across the fissures, and as observed by Professors Tyndall and Huxley these are produced at right angles to the direction of greatest tension. They find an analogy between the lamination of the ice and the slaty cleavage of the clays and slates, both which they refer to pressure causing the development of divisional planes in lines approximately at right angles to the direction of pressure. Hence the obliquity of the lamination to the sides of the glacier as the lines extend from the margin toward the centre and down its course; and the deviation directly across the glacier, or at right angles with this and parallel with its axis, as the form of its bed or other causes produce a pressure in the ore case exerted longitudinally and in the other laterally with the line of the glacier. It was by submitting plastic materials, as wax, to pressure, and observing the laminated structure these assumed, that these gentlemen were led to this explanation of the phenomenon as developed in glacier ice; but others, as Prof. Forbes, describe the white ice as produced merely by lines of cavities or of air bubbles in the blue ice itself, the result, according to the observation of Prof. James Thompson, of partial liquefaction induced by pressure; and Prof. William Thompson attempts to prove "that the first effect of pressure not equal in all directions on a mass of snow ought to be, according to the theory, to convert it into a stratified mass of layers of alternately clear and vesicular ice, perpendicular to the direction of maximum pressure." But the complete explanation of this structure will require experimental researches upon ice which have not yet been made.-Another interesting feature in the appearance of glaciers, to which attention was first directed by Prof. Forbes, is the distribution of what he called the dirtbands, discolored streaks seen upon the surface, which he supposed were connected with the veined structure, appearing where this is more energetically developed than elsewhere, and caused by the collection of sand and dirt in the decomposed portions of the softer laminæ. These are arranged in curves, the convexity of which is turned down the glacier, and are frequently so obscure that they are distinguished only by looking down upon them from some elevation. Professors Tyndall and Huxley describe them as spread out upon the smooth ice below ice cascades, and were able to cause a similar symmetrical arrangement of darkcolored sand distributed upon the surface of a current of fine mud, which they made to flow from a reservoir down an inclined trough, through a narrow channel, which spread out below over a widened area. Various other phenomena connected with the structure and motion of glaciers are discussed in the treatises upon this subject already referred to. The latest publication is by Prof. James D. Forbes, entitled "Occasional Papers on the Theory of Glaciers, now first collected and chronologically arranged, with a Prefatory Note on the Recent Progress and Present State of the Theory" (Edinburgh, 1859). GLACIS, in fortification, the superior slope of the parapet of the outer breast work or covered way, descending by a gentle declivity to the level ground. It must be protected at every point by the guns and musketry of the fort. GLADIATORS (Lat. gladius, a sword), in Roman antiquity, men who fought with each other at the public games, for the entertainment of the spectators. They were originally captives, slaves, or condemned criminals; but under the republic free-born citizens, and under the empire knights, şenators, and even women, fought in the arena. Those who were malefactors were divided into 2 classes, those condemned ad gladium, to be killed within a year, or ad ludum, who were discharged if they survived till the expiration of 3 years. Professional gladiators were trained in schools at Rome, Capua, and Ravenna, by overseers (lanista), who either purchased and maintained them to let them out for public exhibitions, or only trained them for their owners. Claudius and Milo employed gladiators as a political force in their struggle; Cæsar had 5,000 of them at Capua, who were not overlooked by Pompey. They were taught the postures to be assumed in falling and in dying, and such food was chosen as would thicken their blood in order to give the spectators a more leisurely view of their death. The public combat began with weapons of wood, which were soon exchanged for deadly arms. According to their arms or modes of fighting, gladiators were divided into numerous classes. Usually they were matched by pairs. The andabata fought blindfolded, the catervarii in troops, the essedarii in chariots, the equites on horseback, the hoplomachi in full armor, the laqueatores with the lasso, the mirmillones with the weapons of the ancient Gauls, the Samnites with those of the people of Samnium, the Thraces with a dagger and round buckler. The retiarii were lightly equipped, and fought by throwing a net lasso-fashion over the head of their antagonist, and then despatching him with a three-pointed lance or trident. If a combatant was vanquished, but not killed, his fate depended on the people, who turned their thumbs down if they wished him to be spared. A man who had once been a gladiator was always regarded as disgraced, and, if a knight, could not resume his rank. Gladiatorial contests were first exhibited at Rome in 264 B. C., as an entertainment at funerals, and they continued till the reign of Honorius (A. D. 404), when Telemachus, a Christian monk, rushed between two contending gladiators at Rome, and by his selfsacrifice occasioned the decree for their abolition. The passion for them had risen to its height under the emperors. Titus ordained a combat of 100 days, and Trajan one of 123 days, in which 10,000 gladiators fought, and 11,000 fierce animals were killed. Rome was imperilled in 72 B. C. by a rebellion of gladiators under Spartacus, GLADSTONE, WILLIAM EWART, & British statesman, born in Liverpool, Dec. 29, 1809. He is the 4th son of Sir John Gladstone, a wealthy merchant, who relinquished a small business in Glasgow about 1785,and removed to Liverpool, where he acquired a large fortune in the West India trade, and was created a baronet June 27, 1846. At the usual age the son was sent to Eton, where he contracted with the present duke of Newcastle, then earl of Lincoln, a warm friendship, which is commemorated by Benjamin Disraeli in his novel of "Coningsby," and which has remained unbroken to the present hour. Mr. Gladstone's career at Eton gave full promise of the special brilliancy which marked his subsequent academic course at the university of Oxford, where he was graduated at Christchurch in 1831, as double first class, the highest honor, and one rarely attained; after which he became a fellow of All Souls'. After travelling for a short period he entered parliament in Dec. 1832, as member for Newark, a nomination borough belonging to the duke of Newcastle; which position he retained until 1847, when he became a representative of the university of Oxford. In Dec. 1884, he was appointed by Sir Robert Peel a lord of the treasury, and in 1835 under secretary for colonial affairs, which office he filled but for 2 months, when the government to which he belonged was overthrown. He continued a useful and active as well as brilliant member of the opposition party led by Sir Robert Peel, until that statesman's return to power in 1841, when he was sworn a member of the privy council and appointed vice-president of the board of trade and master of the mint. In this position he explained and defended in parliament the commercial policy of the government, and the revision of the British tariff in 1842 was almost entirely his work. He did not, however, confine himself to political labors. He was a constant contributor to the “Quarterly Review," chiefly on literary and ecclesiastical subjects. He also wrote during this period his work on church and state, which created so much sensation, and the extreme high church views maintained in which afterward considerably hampered his political career. In May, 1843, he succeeded Lord Ripon as president of the board of trade, but in Feb. 1845, he resigned his offices on the introduction of the measure for the increase of the Maynooth grant, which was directly opposed in principle to the opinions he had expressed in his work on church and state. In Nov. 1845, Sir Robert Peel resigned, but, on the failure of Lord John Russell to form a government, owing to a difference between Lords Palmerston and Grey, he was recalled and reconstructed his cabinet, Mr. Gladstone becoming secretary for the colonies in the room of Lord Stanley (now earl of Derby). In the free trade measure announced by Sir Robert Peel in Jan. 1846, Mr. Gladstone fully concurred with the ministry; but being unwilling to remain under obligations to the duke of Newcastle, he felt himself constrained to resign his seat for the borough of Newark, and was consequently out of parliament during the debates on this measure. At the general election of 1847 he was chosen to represent the university of Oxford, and one of his first speeches in parliament was in favor of the Jew bill, which he had opposed in 1841. His speech against the foreign policy of Lord Palmerston in the Don Pacifico debates was generally regarded as one of the most admirable pieces of English eloquence the last half century has heard. In the ministerial crisis of 1852 he was invited by Lord Derby to enter his cabinet, but declined, and on the overthrow of that minister in Dec. of the same year accepted the office of chancellor of the exchequer under the earl of Aberdeen. While holding this office he introduced in 1853 his celebrated budget in those remarkable series of addresses which were eulogized by Mr. Cobden, and pronounced by Lord John Russell "to contain the ablest expositions of the true principles of finance ever delivered by an English statesman." On the resignation of Lord Aberdeen in Feb. 1855, and the elevation of Lord Palmerston to the premiership, Mr. Gladstone continued to hold his office of chancellor of the exchequer; VOL. VIII.-18 but he soon resigned, together with Sir James Graham, Mr. Sidney Herbert, and the other Peelite members of the government, in consequence of Lord Palmerston's refusing to oppose a motion of inquiry into the conduct of the Crimean war, which was considered indirectly to convey a censure on the duke of Newcastle and Mr. Sidney Herbert. On the overthrow of Lord Palmerston's government and second accession of Lord Derby to power, Mr. Gladstone again declined the pressing overtures of that nobleman, but, in Nov. 1858, accepted an appointment as lord high commissioner extraordinary to the Ionian islands. In 1859, on Lord Palmerston's return to office, Mr. Gladstone again became a member of the government as chancellor of the exchequer.-Mr. Gladstone married, July 25, 1839, Catharine, the eldest daughter of Sir Stephen Richard Glynne, M. P. for Flintshire, and has a numerous family. In person he is slight and nervous, with a countenance in which a singular sweetness of expression is blended with an eager student look. As a debater he is acknowledged universally to hold the first place in the house of commons, and his reputation as an administrator is almost equally great.-The published works of Mr. Gladstone include "The State in Connection with the Church" (2 vols., 1838), "Church Principles Considered" (1 vol., 1840), "Studies on Homer and the Homeric Age" (3 vols., Oxford, 1858); and he has supervised a translation of Farini's Stato Romano (4 vols., London, 1859). In 1851 he published a "Letter to Lord Aberdeen" on the cruelties inflicted on the political prisoners confined in the dungeons of Naples, which produced a universal and very deep impression. GLADWIN, an E. co. of Mich., intersected by Titibiwassee river; area, 570 sq. m. Its surface is moderately uneven, and its soil consists of a sandy loam. It is not included in the census of 1850, having been recently erected. GLAGOLITIC, one of the two ancient Slovenic, or less correctly Slavonic, forms of writing. It is derived from the 4th letter, glagol, equivalent to our hard g, as in go, give; and is also known as the Bukvitsa, from bukva, letter, or from the names of the 2d and 3d letters, buk and vide, or b and v. Its formation is attributed by some to St. Jerome, and by others to Methodius, the apostle of Pannonia and Great Moravia (about 860). The shape of the 32 letters (of which 27 are also numeral signs) is very grotesque and protean, little resembling the Greek. The Glagolitsa was used in Illyria, Dalmatia, and Bulgaria. The other form of Slovenic writing is the Kuirilitsa, contrived by Cyrillus, the reputed brother of Methodius, many letters of which are like the Coptic, because they imitate the Greek forms. This consisted originally of 40 letters, and is still in use among the eastern Slavi and the Wallachians. The Russian azbuka or bukvar (alphabet) is a slight modification of the latter, with 32 letters. These systems have been much extolled by some authors; but, though representing all sounds of the lan guages, they are imperfect, inasmuch as they contain single signs for complex sounds, such as ts, tsh, shtsh, ye, ya, yu. The nations that employ these graphic systems belong mostly to the Greek church; while the Catholic Slavi (Poles, Bohemians, Slovacks, Lusatians, &c.) make use of the Latin or the so called German letters, with some modifications. The most remarkable works in Glagolitic writing are: Glagolita Clozianus, by Count Paris Cloz of Trent in the 11th century, edited by Kopitar (Vienna, 1836); Codex Assemanicus, continens Lectiones Evangelicas, Bibliotheca Vaticana, in Aug. Maiji Scriptorum Veterum Nova Collectione; Codex continens Psalmos, cum Expositione S. Athanasii, &c., at Bologna; all these are in the Bulgarian idiom. Breviarium (edited by Brozich, Venice, 1561) is in Servian. GLAIRE, JEAN BAPTISTE, & French theologian and orientalist, born in Bordeaux, April 1, 1798. A brilliant pupil of the seminary in his native town, he was sent to Paris, where he entered the St. Sulpice seminary to complete his theological studies, meanwhile studying the Hebrew, Chaldaic, and Syriac languages under the direction of the abbé Garnier; he also attended the lectures of Sylvestre de Sacy on the Persian and the Arabic, and those of Eugène Burnouf on the Sanscrit. Taking holy orders in 1822, he taught Hebrew in his seminary, and was in 1825 appointed to fill the chair of Chaunai de Lanzac at the Sorbonne. In 1833 he obtained the degree of D.D., and was in 1841 made dean of the faculty of theology. In 1843 he left the chair he formerly occupied to take another, where his special duty was to expound the Holy Scriptures. Two years later he was nominated counsellor of the university and member of the legion of honor. An honorary canon of Bordeaux since 1827, he was in 1851 promoted to the honorary vicarship of that archbishopric. His most important works are: Lexicon Manuale Hebraicum et Chaldaicum (8vo., Paris, 1830; new ed., considerably enlarged and improved, 1843); Principes de grammaire Hébraïque et Chaldaique (8vo., Paris, 1832; new eds., 1836 and 1843, with a Chrestomathie Chaldaïque et Hébraïque); La sainte Bible en Latin et en Français, with notes, explanations, &c. (3 vols. 4to., Paris, 1834); Torath Mosché, Le Pentateuque, with a French translation and notes, of which the two first parts only have been published, Genesis and Exodus (2 vols. 8vo., Paris, 1835-7); Introduction historique et critique aux livres de l'Ancien et du Nouveau Testament (6 vols. 12mo., Paris, 1836), an abridgment of which appeared in 1846 (1 vol. 8vo.); Manuel de l'Hébraïsant, containing a grammar, a chrestomathy or choice pieces, and a lexicon (12mo., Leipsic, 1856); Concordances Arabes du Coran; Principes de grammaire Arabe (1857). GLAMORGANSHIRE, a maritime co. of S. Wales, bounded N. by Caermarthenshire and Brecknockshire, E. by Monmouthshire and the Severn, S. and W. by the Bristol channel; area 660 sq. m.; pop. in 1851, 231,849. The northern portion is mountainous, but the southern is level and fertile. The principal crops are wheat, barley, oats, beans, peas, vetches, and turnips. The horned cattle are of superior quality, and in the mountain districts great numbers of sheep and ponies are reared. Glamorganshire is famous for its coal and iron mines. In the neighborhood of Merthyr-Tydvil the iron works are on a gigantic scale; within a small circuit there are upward of 60 blast furnaces, some of which have more than 4,000 workmen engaged on them. Vast quantities of coal and iron are annually exported from Cardiff. The principal rivers are the Rhymney, the Taff, and the Tawe. The chief towns are Cardiff, the capital, Merthyr-Tydvil, Swansea, and Neath. county has also some woollen manufactories, and numerous canals and railways. It returns 5 members to parliament-2 for the county, and one each for the boroughs of Cardiff, MerthyrTydvil, and Swansea. This GLAND (Lat. glans, an acorn), in anatomy, the general name of a variety of organs whose functions are to elaborate the various products of secretion from the blood, to perform certain offices connected with absorption and assimilation, and to assist in the process of preparing and maintaining the circulating fiuid in a normal condition. Of the first class of glands the liver and the kidneys are examples, of the second the mesenteric and lymphatic glands, and of the third the spleen. The true secreting glands are of various form, size, and structure, but are all constructed with special reference to the arrangement of the nucleated and epithelial cells and tubes or cavities which enter into their texture; their products are poured forth either on the outer surface of the body, or on some cavity or canal communicating externally, and the cells which effect the separation of their special secretions from the blood are generally in the relation of epithelium cells to the inversions of the skin or mucous membranes that form the greater part of their follicles or tubuli. These cells generally minister to the act of secretion by yielding up their contents by rupture, as in the mammary gland and liver; some of the more liquid excretions, as the sweat and urine, are formed without the destruction of the cells lining the gland tubes, though in most this act is the result of vital processes, a constant development, growth, and destruction of gland cells. The different secretions cannot be explained by any differences of supporting structure, by the amount of blood, or the arrangement of the vessels in the respective glands. Some glands, like the kidneys, discharge their secretions as soon as formed, for the purification of the blood; others, like the testes, store up their products for occasional use; while others, like the salivary and lachrymal glands, constantly secrete a small quantity, which is easily increased by special excitement. The great majority of glands with permanent ducts may be divided into 3 groups, according to the modes in which the cell-containing tubes are arranged: 1, the simple tubular glands, like the follicles of the stomach and intestines, which seem to be mere depressions in the mucous membrane, elongated gland vesicles lined with secreting cells; 2, the aggregated or conglomerate glands, in which a number of vesicles are grouped into lobules, and these again into lobes joined by loose areolar tissue, like the salivary, mammary, pancreatic, prostate, and lachrymal glands, and also the liver; 3, the convoluted tubular glands, as the kidneys and the testes, ending in dilatations, cul-de-sacs, or loops. In all a large extent of secreting surface is packed in a small compass; while one end of the gland and duct opens on a free surface, the opposite end is closed, with no direct communication with blood vessels or other canals. The glands of secretion have been divided into 2 classes, according as their product is excrementitious and to be cast off, or to be used within the system; the former are called more properly excretory glands, and include the liver, kidneys, testes, and prostate, and those which supply the cutaneous and pulmonary transpiration and the peculiar fæcal fluids of the lower part of the intestinal canal; the true secretory glands are the gastric, salivary, mammary, sebaceous, mucous, lachrymal, Brunner's, and the pancreas. The kidneys, liver, mammary glands (secreting respectively urine, bile, and milk), and the pancreas will be described under their proper titles; the salivary and gastric glands have been noticed under DIGESTION; the sebaceous, ceruminous, odoriferous, and sudoriparous glands (secreting the oily, waxy, odorous, and perspiratory matters of the surface), will be treated in the article SKIN; the follicles of Lieberkühn (in the small and large intestine), Brunner's glands in the duodenum, and the solitary glands most numerous in the cæcal region, will be described under INTESTINE; the lachrymal glands are spoken of under EYE; the so called glands of Pacchioni and the pineal body or gland are alluded to in the article BRAIN. The air passages of the chest and head, the alimentary canal above the stomach, and the genito-urinary apparatus, are provided with solitary and aggregated glands and follicles for the secretion of their lubricating mucus; the tonsils are glandular masses principally, and there are numerous follicles in the posterior fauces, and in the neighborhood of the epiglottis and entrance to the larynx, whose diseased secretions and ulceration constitute the kind of folliculitis popularly called " clergyman's sore throat."-Another system is that of the vascular or ductless glands, which possess all the elements of glandular structure, except the efferent ducts; restoring therefore to the blood whatever they take from it, it is generally admitted that they perform some part in the process of sanguification, probably acting upon such nutrient materials as are taken up directly by the blood vessels without in the first instance passing through the absorbents. These glands are the spleen on the left side of the abdominal cavity; the thymus gland, a foetal organ in the anterior mediastinum; the thyroid body, on the anterior portion of the neck; and the supra-renal capsules, surmounting the kidneys; these will be described in their alphabetical order. They are composed of vesicles or sacculi, simple and closed, or branched, of a delicate membrane surrounded with a vascular plexus, and filled with an albuminous fluid containing fat granules and nucleated cells. The opinion that these glands serve for the higher organization of the blood materials is supported by the fact that they are especially large and active during fœtal life and childhood, when the most abundant supply of nutrient fluids is necessary; they are also believed to be concerned in supplying the germs of cells which are ultimately to become blood corpuscles. They are not essential to life in the adult; the thymus entirely disappears, the thyroid may be completely disorganized, and the spleen be removed (as has been often done in animals), without any apparent ill consequences; the supra-renal capsules seem to preside over the production of the pigment cells, and their morbid condition or atrophy is connected with the peculiar disease known as "bronzed skin."The last group includes the absorbent glands, the patches of Peyer, the mesenteric, and the lymphatic glands. The lacteals and the fluid they convey have been described under ABSORPTION and CHYLE. Peyer's glands, most numerous toward the ileo-cæcal valve, are intimately connected with the lacteals; whether single or in clusters, they are always in that portion of the intestine which joins the mesentery; they are capsules, containing fatty and albuminous matters, with nuclear particles and cells, all apparently undergoing rapid changes; the exterior and interior of the capsules are freely supplied with blood. In the mesentery are situated the mesenteric glands, which bear the same relation to the lacteals that the absorbent glands do to the lymphatics; each gland is enclosed by a fibrous sheath, which forms by its partitions an internal supporting framework; the intervening alveoli are filled with a grayish pulp, as in Peyer's patches, penetrated by a fine capillary plexus, and in free communication with the afferent and efferent ducts between which they are situated; the number of corpuscles of the chyle is greatly increased by passing through these glands, which perform a most important part in the bloodmaking or assimilating process. No lacteal or lymphatic reaches the terminal thoracic duct without passing through one or more of these glands. In the lower vertebrates plexuses of lymphatics occupy the places of the glands of birds and mammals. Glands are situated all along the course of the lymphatic vessels, both superficial and deep-seated. Familiar examples are the glands in the groin, the seat of syphilitic and scrofulous abscesses, and often swollen from irritation of any portion of the lower extremity; the axillary glands in the armpit, often requiring surgical interference for enlargements and ab |