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ceived with greater enthusiasm, or have wrought a greater influence upon the public opinion of a nation. It was, however, distrusted by the Jesuits, to whom Gioberti replied in the Prolegomeni of the second edition (Brussels, 1845). In 1846 he removed to Paris in order to be within reach of the movements of internal reform beginning in Italy. The accession to the pontifical see of Pius IX., who had studied with favor the writings of the exiled philosopher, and the liberal measures which he granted at the same time that constitutional principles were proclaimed by the court of Turin, promised to Gioberti the speedy realization of his ideal. He wrote a severe and passionate answer to the attacks which the Jesuits had made on him, under the title of Il Gesuita moderno (5 vols., Lausanne, 1847), the result of which was their expulsion from Sardinia. At the revolution of 1848 he returned to Italy after an absence of 15 years, and was welcomed with a triumph at Turin, the city being illuminated in his honor several nights in succession. Opposed alike to foreign dominion and to a general republic, his scheme was a union of the states under the supremacy of the house of Savoy, and he visited the principal cities of the peninsula, haranguing the troops, the universities, and the populace in favor of his views, and was everywhere received with enthusiasm. Mazzini, the head of "young Italy," was, however, his rival in popularity and influence, and his bitter opponent, and the discord between these two leaders soon extended to the princes, some of whom withdrew the forces which they had sent to aid Sardinia against Austria. Mazzini and Gioberti mutually reproached each other with being a greater enemy to Italy than even Austria. The latter, elected to the Piedmontese parliament (which assembled on May 8) by both Genoa and Turin, placed himself at the head of the constitutional royalist party in the chamber of deputies, and was appointed its president by acclamation. In July he entered the Casati ministry, and for a moment thought that he saw the triumph of his hopes in the vote by which the Lombardo-Venetian provinces were annexed to Sardinia. The military reverses experienced by Charles Albert quickly dissipated the illusion, and the ministry gave place to that of Revel, which accepted an armistice that resembled an abandonment of the war of independence, and therefore was at once unpopular. Gioberti united with his opponents of the extreme democratic party in efforts to overthrow this ministry, and at the same time resumed his idea of a political league, and became president of the society for an Italian confederation, representatives of which from all parts of Italy assembled in Turin on Oct. 10. His conduct won general admiration, even from "young Italy," and he was enthusiastically placed at the head of the cabinet which on Dec. 16 succeeded that of Revel. He had scarcely become master of his position, when he selected his own way of carrying out his views. Though he had announced a new campaign in Lombardy,

he was convinced that it could only be fruitless, and conceiving a sort of coup d'état, he broke with the party which had yielded to him and shared with him the ministry, absorbed in himself all the energy and responsibility of the cabinet, and, renouncing the war of independence, resolved to employ the Piedmontese armies in restoring the thrones of the peninsula which had been carried away by the popular commotions. He designed to surround them with constitutional guarantees, and to make them not less liberal than anti-republican. To carry back the pope and the exiled princes in the face of "young Italy," then triumphant at Rome, was a conception worthy of his political daring. Two obstacles prevented his beginning the execution of the plan: the refusal of the Italian princes to trust their restoration to the court of Turin, and the energetic resistance of the other Piedmontese ministers to such a movement. The king himself formally opposed the programme of the philosopher, who, after a remarkable discourse before the chambers, resigned his office on Feb. 21, 1849, declaring that with him had fallen the cause of Italian renovation. After the disaster of Novara (March 23), he entered the new cabinet as minister without a portfolio, and was soon after sent to Paris as plenipotentiary. The mission being hardly more than an honorable exile, he solicited the appointment of a successor, and retired from public life. He resumed his studies, and published his Del rinnovamento civile d'Italia (2 vols., Paris and Turin, 1851), in which he criticizes the conduct of parties in the movement of 1848, and affirms that he repents of no counsel which he gave or political act which he performed during his brief public career. The end of his efforts he states to have been "to establish in Italy a Piedmontese hegemony, and in Europe the moral supremacy of Italy." He resided from this time in Paris, and was engaged in a philosophical work on Protologia, or first science, when his death occurred suddenly by apoplexy. Gioberti is the subject of an able discussion in "Brownson's Quarterly Review" for Oct. 1850, in which, though the highest eulogy is bestowed on his genius, culture, and the first principles and method of his philosophy, he is criticized for aiming in his speculations, not at the salvation of the soul, but at the advancement of civilization, not at the eternal beatitude, but at the earthly felicity of men and the temporal well-being of nations; as maintaining Catholicity, but not maintaining it for a genuinely Catholic end. It is affirmed that religion, thus considered as a civilizing agent rather than as an instrument of salvation, ceases to be religion, becomes merely human, passes wholly into the secular order, and therefore necessarily loses all power or influence over it; and that from this primal error has sprung the attempt of Gioberti" to unite the world and God, earth and heaven, philosophy and theology, heathenism and Christianity, lay culture and sacerdotal." The attempt is regarded as inconsistent with his own principle that the priest

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hood creates civilization, which is therefore thought subject to religion, and not an independent, coexisting interest to be reconciled or harmonized with it. Gioberti refused to submit to the papal condemnation of his Gesuita moderno, and all his works have been placed on the index at Rome. Beside those already mentioned, he wrote letters in French Sur les erreurs religieuses de M. de Lamennais (Brussels, 1840), and Sur les doctrines philosophiques et politiques de M. de Lamennais (Brussels, 1842), and a treatise Degli errori filosofici di Ant. Rosmini (Brussels, 1841), charging both of these philosophers with tendencies to pantheism; Del buono (Brussels, 1843), in which he applies his philosophical system to ethics; Apologia del libro intitolato Il Gesuita moderno (Paris and Brussels, 1848), and Operette politiche (2 vols., Lugano, 1851). A uniform edition of his earlier works was published at Brussels (9 vols., 1843-5). His posthumous works are now (1859) in process of publication at Paris and Turin, under the editorial care of G. Massari.

GIOJA, FLAVIO, also called GIRA or GIRI, & Neapolitan mariner, born in Pasitano near the end of the 13th century. The invention of the compass was long attributed to him; but the use of the magnetic needle, suspended by a thread, was known before his time, and he probably introduced the improvement of fixing the needle on a pivot.

GIOJA, MELCHIORE, an Italian political economist, born in Piacenza, Sept. 20, 1767, died in Milan, Jan. 2, 1829. He studied in his native city at the college Alberoni, particularly mathematics, philosophy, and theology, and received holy orders. He lived in studious retirement till the changes caused in Italy by the victories of Napoleon called him to public life. He declared himself for a republic, advocating the adoption of a constitution for Italy similar to that of 1795 in France. The institute of the Cisalpine republic having proposed the question: "Which of all free governments is the best for Italy?" he answered: "The republican,' in a dissertation which obtained the prize. He was subsequently appointed historiographer of the state. His liberal views caused him a temporary imprisonment in 1799. Having lost his situation as historiographer by a treatise on divorce (1803), and been removed from the board of statistics on account of articles criticizing the management of public affairs, he revenged himself by a sarcastic article entitled Пl povero diavolo, in consequence of which he was obliged to leave Italy. He was recalled in 1813, and intrusted with the elaboration of the statistics of Italy, which work was soon interrupted by the fall of that kingdom with the empire of Napoleon (1814). He then wrote on political, economical, and philosophical questions. Suspected of participation in the liberal movements of 1820, he was arrested by the Austrian government, but set free after 8 months' imprisonment, and continued his literary labors. He was a disciple of Bentham and Locke, and his numerous

works on political economy are among the most important in the Italian language.

GIORDANO, LUCA, an Italian painter, born in Naples in 1632, died in the same city, Jan. 12, 1705. He studied at first under Ribera, and afterward went to Rome and studied under Pietro da Cortona. He painted with unequalled rapidity; which_circumstance, as well as the nickname of Fa Presto by which he was sometimes called, was perhaps due to the avarice of his father, an inferior artist, who in Luca's youth sold his works at a high price, and was continually urging him on with the words: Luca, fa presto ("Luca, make haste"). He visited Parma, Venice, Bologna, and Florence, leaving everywhere products of his talent and facility. Invited to Madrid by Charles II. in 1692, he remained in Spain 10 years, and executed an immense number of frescoes in the Escurial, and in the churches and palaces of Madrid, Toledo, &c. The skill with which he imitated the manner of other artists gained him the title of the Proteus of painting. Among the most admired of his numerous works are the "Triumph of the Church Militant" in the Escurial, the "Virgin and the Child Jesus" in the Pitti palace at Florence, and the "Judgment of Paris" in the Louvre.

GIORGIONE. See BARBARELLI, GIORGIO. GIOTTO, called also GIOTTO DI BONDONE from his father, and by some AMBROGIOTTO, the regenerator of Italian art, born at Vespignano, near Florence, in 1276, died in the latter place about 1336. Tradition relates that the painter Cimabue discovered him, a shepherd boy in the valley of Vespignano, in the act of drawing upon a smooth piece of slate the figure of a sheep grazing near him, and was so struck with the genius which the work evinced, that he took him into his own house in Florence and taught him his art. Giotto, who was then about 14 years of age, more than realized the expectations of his master, whom he speedily excelled, and who undoubtedly in the latter part of his life conformed his style to that of his pupil. Art was then feebly struggling to free itself from the trammels of the constrained Byzantine style which pervaded all Italy. Cimabue and Duccio di Siena had indeed attempted to improve on existing models, but to Giotto must be ascribed the honor of giving the first healthful impulse to modern art by rejecting them altogether. He was essentially an innovator, and from the commencement of his career deviated from the practice of his predecessors, not merely in the introduction of natural scenes and expressions, and in the dramatic interest of his groups, but in the minor characteristics of form and color. The symbolic representation of a subject, according to conventional rules, had hitherto been the highest aim of the artist. Giotto first gave life to art by making his works truly reflect his own impressions of nature, and was thus enabled within the short compass of a single life to overthrow an existing style, and to form and perfect another, whose higher development was reserved

for a later age. From the remoteness of the epoch in which Giotto painted, it is not surprising that many of his works have perished; but from the specimens that remain and the traditions of those that are lost it is easy to account for the influence which he exerted over central Italy, from Padua to Naples. Social and political revolutions, the quality of the materials used, the effects of climate, and the vandalism of his own and of later times, have destroyed or hopelessly injured his choicest works. Some of them have been whitewashed over, among them his portraits of Dante and other eminent citizens of Florence, one of his earliest works painted on the walls of the chapel of the Podesta, now the Bargello, or prison, in Florence, and which Mr. Richard H. Wilde and Mr. Bezzi brought to light in 1840. These are said by Vasari to be the first successful attempts at portraiture. The record of his life is not very clear, but it is certain that before the death of his master Cimabue his reputation was such that Pope Boniface VIII. summoned him to Rome, where he designed his famous mosaic of the Navicella, representing the disciples at sea in a tempest and Christ raising Peter from the waves. It is now in St. Peter's, but frequent restorations have left little of the original work beside the composition. We next hear of him at Padua, where about 1306 he executed in the chapel of the Madonna dell' Arena his series of paintings, 42 in number, representing the life of the Virgin. He here met his friend Dante, then exiled from Florence, to whose influence the allegorical tendency which these and many of his subsequent works exhibit is justly ascribed. An instance of this is afforded in the majestic figures of Poverty, Chastity, and Obedience, representing the 3 vows of the order of St. Francis, over whose tomb they are painted in the famous abbey church of the Franciscan order at Assisi, the repository of so many curious specimens of old Italian art. Thenceforth Giotto was actively employed in many parts of Italy. Popes and kings, cities and monasteries, and noble families without number, were emulous for the possession of his works. Robert of Naples entertained him honorably at his court, where he painted the sacraments for the Incoronata; and he is even said to have followed Clement V. to Avignon, and to have painted there and elsewhere in France. The wonder and enthusiasm which his works excited are perhaps without a parallel in the history of Italian art. It seemed little less than miraculous that an artist should express natural character and emotion in his paintings, and a contemporary writer naïvely illustrates the feeling of the time by expressing his surprise that in Giotto's pictures "the personages who are in grief look melancholy, and those who are joyous look gay." Boccaccio says that "through Giotto that art was restored to light which had been for many centuries buried." Giotto cultivated also the arts of sculpture and architecture, and excelled in

each. Of his proficiency in the latter the famous Campanile of Florence, erected in 1334 from his designs, is a remarkable instance. His school flourished for upward of a century after his death.

GIOVIO, PAOLO (PAULO JOVIUS), an Italian Latin historian, born in Como, April 19, 1483, died in Florence, Dec. 11, 1552. He studied at Pavia, abandoned medical for historical inquiries, was protected by Popes Leo X. and Clement VII., by Charles V. and Francis I., wielded a venal pen, was loaded with honors and favors, and having lost all that he possessed when in 1527 Rome was sacked by the constable of Bourbon, was rewarded with the bishopric of Nocera, His veracity is not to be relied on. His most important work is a "History of his own Time" in 45 books, 6 of which are wanting. GIRAFFE. See CAMELOPARD. GIRALDUS CAMBRENSIS. GERALD.

See BARRY,

GIRARD, CHARLES, an American naturalist, born in Mulhouse, France, in 1822. In 1839 he was a pupil of Agassiz, at Neufchâtel, Switzerland, and soon became one of his assistants. While in Switzerland he devoted himself chiefly to the Nomenclator Zoologicus and the Bibliographia Zoologia et Palæontologia. He accompanied Agassiz to America, and remained his assistant until 1850, in which year he went to Washington, where he has continued to reside. He has published in the "Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge" the first of a series of monographs, being "Contributions to the Natural History of the Fresh Water Fishes of North America." A memoir of his on the "Embryonic Development of Planocera Elliptica" has appeared in the "Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences" of Philadelphia. The article on reptiles in Stansbury's "Expedition to the Valley of the Great Salt Lake of Utah" is from his pen; also the article on fishes in Sitgreaves' "Explorations of the Zuñi and Colorado Rivers;" fishes and reptiles in Marcy's "Exploration of the Red River of Louisiana;" fishes, reptiles, and crustacea, in Gilliss's "Expedition to Chile." The fishes of the United States and Mexican boundary report were described by him; also the fishes in the various Pacific railroad surveys, a large quarto with numerous plates. His "Ichthyological Notices" close, for the present, his labors on fishes. He was associated with Prof. Baird in the investigation of the reptiles in the museum of the Smithsonian institution; he also described the reptiles brought home by the U. S. exploring expedition, his volume being the 20th in the series, and accompanied with a splendid atlas. Various papers of his are published in the "Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science," in the "Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History," and in those of the academy of natural sciences of Philadelphia. A paper on the "Physical Aspects of Life" in the "Proceedings of the National Institute," opens a new field of physio

logical inquiries, with their application to medicine.

GIRARD, GRÉGOIRE, known as Father Girard, a Swiss educator, born in Freyburg, Dec. 17, 1765, died in the same city, March 6, 1850. After receiving holy orders in 1790, he became curate in his native town, and teacher of philosophy in the Franciscan convent. In 1799, having presented to Stapfer, the minister of art and science of the Helvetian republic, a "Scheme for the Education of Switzerland," he was called to aid in organizing a system of general education. After a short stay at Bern, Father Girard returned in 1805 to Freyburg, where he had been appointed prefect of the primary school. Here he was at liberty to reduce to practice his own ideas, and his school flourished till his fame as an instructor spread over Europe. His aim was to convey moral and religious impressions with every exercise of the memory and reason. Through the influence of the Jesuits after their return to Freyburg, the bishop was persuaded in 1823 to abandon his system and suppress his school. He retired to Lucerne, where he taught philosophy with great success. He returned again to Freyburg in 1835 to complete his Cours éducatif de langue maternelle, à l'usage des écoles et des familles, the 1st volume of which had already been rewarded by the French institute with the Monty on prize, and the whole appeared at Paris (3 vols., 1845-'8).

GIRARD, STEPHEN, an American merchant and banker, born near Bordeaux, France, May 21, 1750, died in Philadelphia, Dec. 26, 1831. He was the son of a seaman, and following his father's calling sailed about 1760 in the capacity of cabin boy to the West Indies and New York. Rising by degrees to be master and part owner of an American coasting vessel, he accumulated in the course of a few years a sum sufficient to establish him in business as a small trader in Philadelphia in 1769. He married about this time the daughter of a ship builder of that city, but the union was unhappy. Mr. Girard applied for a divorce, and his wife ultimately died insane in a public hospital. Meanwhile Girard trafficked with the West Indies with variable success, until his maritime ventures were suspended by the war of the revolution. He then opened a grocery and liquor shop, at first in Philadelphia, and afterward, during the British occupation of that city, at Mount Holly, where he drove a profitable trade with the American soldiers. In 1780 he resumed his dealings with the West Indies and New Orleans, and some time afterward was in partnership for a few years with his brother John. The connection was dissolved in 1790, Stephen having gained while it lasted about $30,000. The foundation of his subsequent wealth, however, seems to have been a lease which he took of a range of stores, at a time when rents were much depressed by the war; these he underrented at a large profit. Another source of gain to him was the negro insurrection in St. Domingo. Two of his vessels were

then in one of the ports of the island, and many of the planters placed their treasures in them for safety, but were afterward cut off with their entire families. About $50,000 worth of property whose owners could not be found thus remained in Mr. Girard's hands. With a remarkable capacity for business and a habit of strictness in money matters, he rapidly multiplied his wealth, and before long came to be recognized as one of the richest merchants in the city. During the prevalence of the yellow fever in Philadelphia in 1793, 7, and '8, when it raged with a violence never before seen in America, Mr. Girard not only made liberal donations of money, but performed in person the duties of physician and nurse, undertook the most disagreeable offices in the hospitals, and for two months kept charge of the hospital on Bush hill. In 1812, having purchased the building and a large part of the stock of the old United States bank, he commenced business as a private banker, with a capital of $1,200,000, which was afterward increased to $4,000,000. Beside the benefit which this institution proved to the national currency, it enabled Mr. Girard to make heavy loans to the government in times of public embarrassment; and at one period, during the war of 1812, when out of a loan of $5,000,000 proposed by the secretary of the treasury only $20,000 could be negotiated, he subscribed for the whole amount. He had an active agency in procuring the charter of the second United States bank, of which he became a director. He contributed liberally to all public improvements, and adorned the city of Philadelphia with many handsome buildings. His character was a remarkable compound of apparently conflicting qualities. He was frugal and parsimonious, but not avaricious; profuse in his public charities, but stern in exacting the last fraction that was due him. His kindness to sick persons was extraordinary, but he never had a friend. His appearance was very plain. He was uneducated; was a free thinker in religion, and an admirer of the school of Voltaire and Rousseau, after whom he was fond of naming his ships. His property at the time of his death amounted to about $9,000,000. Comparatively little of it was bequeathed to his relatives. To the Pennsylvania hospital he willed $30,000; to the Pennsylvania institution for the deaf and dumb, $20,000; to the orphan asylum of Philadelphia, $10,000; to the Philadelphia public schools, $10,000; to the city of Philadelphia, for the distribution of fuel to the poor every winter, $10,000; to the society for the relief of distressed masters of ships, $10,000; to the masonic loan, $20,000; to the city of New Orleans, a large amount of real estate; to the city of Philadelphia, for improvement of its streets, buildings, &c., $500,000; for the improvement of canal navigation in Pennsylvania, $300,000. The principal bequest, however, was the sum of $2,000,000, beside the residue of a certain portion of his estate out of which some legacies were to be paid, together with a plot of ground in Phil

adelphia, for the erection and support of a college for orphans. The most minute directions were given for the construction, size, and materials of the building, which was accordingly begun in July, 1833, and opened Jan. 1, 1848. It is surrounded by a stone wall 10 feet high, enclosing 41 acres of land laid out in play grounds, grass plats, gardens, &c. The main building is the finest specimen of Grecian architecture in America, and is even said to be the finest of modern times. The outer walls, stair cases, floors, and roof are of white marble; the inner walls of brick. It is in the form of a Corinthian temple, surrounded by a portico of 34 columns, each 55 feet high and 6 feet in diameter. Its length is 169 feet, its width 111 feet, and its height 97 feet. The entrances are on the N. and S. fronts, each door being 16 feet wide and 32 feet high; the E. and W. sides are pierced each by 24 windows. The structure rests on a basement of 11 steps extending around the entire building. A marble statue in the lower vestibule covers the remains of Mr. Girard. There are 5 other buildings within the enclosure, one of which is used as a laboratory, bakery, wash house, &c. The other 4 stand 2 on each side of the main building, and are of marble, each 2 stories high, 125 feet long, and 52 feet wide. The cost of the edifices was over $1,930,000. As many poor white male orphans as the endowment can support are admitted between the ages of 6 and 10 years, fed, clothed, and educated, and between the ages of 14 and 18 are bound out to mechanical, agricultural, or commercial occupations. By a provision of the will of the founder no ecclesiastic, missionary, or minister of any sect whatever is to hold any connection with the college, or be admitted to the premises even as a visitor, but the officers of the institution are required to instruct the pupils in the purest principles of morality, and leave them to adopt their own religious opinions on their entrance into life. The officers consist of a president, secretary, 2 professors, 5 male and 12 female teachers, a physician, a matron, an assistant matron, and a steward.

GIRARDIN, DELPHINE GAY, & French authoress, wife of the succeeding, born in Aix la Chapelle, Jan. 26, 1804, died in Paris, June 29, 1855. She was the daughter of Mme. Sophie Gay, and a poem written by her when she was scarcely 18 years old gained an extraordinary prize of the French academy. In 1824 she published a collection of Essais poëtiques. She was accustomed to recite her verses in society, and having extemporized some_beautiful lines on the premature death of Gen. Foy in 1825, she was hailed as la muse de la patrie, and received from Charles X. a pension of 1,500 francs. On a visit to Italy in 1827 she was elected by acclamation a member of the Tiber academy at Rome, and carried in triumph to the capitol. She married Emile de Girardin in 1831, and produced in 1833 Napoline, one of her most charming poems. She had already begun to write novels. Le lorgnon, which appeared in 1831, was succeeded

by M. le marquis de Pontanges in 1835, and La canne de M. de Balzac in 1836. From 1836 to 1848 she furnished to the Presse, under the nom de plume of Vicomte Delaunay, 57 Lettres Parisiennes on matters of literature, art, and fashion. The only complete edition of these letters was brought out in 1858, with an introduction by Théophile Gautier. In 1839 she wrote a comedy, L'école des journalistes, the representation of which was prohibited by the government. In 1843 her tragedy Judith, designed for Rachel, was performed at the théâtre Français. Another tragedy, Cléopatre (1847), and the comedy of Lady Tartufe (1853), were also written for that actress. Her comedies, C'est la faute du mari, ou les bons maris font les bonnes femmes (1851), and La joie fait peur (1854), and her vaudeville Le chapeau d'un horloger (1854), were highly successful. Her last novels, Marguerite, ou deux amours, and Il ne faut pas jouer avec la douleur, appeared in 1853, and a new edition of the former in 1858. She was celebrated for her beauty and wit, and her drawing room was frequented by men of letters.

GIRARDIN, EMILE DE, a French journalist, born in Switzerland in 1802. The natural son of Count Alexandre de Girardin, registered at his birth under the fictitious name of Émile de Lamothe, he struggled for years before he gained his right name, and it was not till 1837 that his filiation was definitely established by his parents' public avowal. After being inspector of the fine arts under the Martignac ministry, he established two periodicals: Le voleur, which pilfered from all the other journals, and La mode, a journal of fashion, which enjoyed the patronage of the duchess of Berry. After the revolution of 1830 he established the monthly Journal des connaissances utiles, the price of which was only 4 francs (less than 80 cents) a year, which soon obtained the unprecedented number of 120,000 subscribers. Through the agency of this paper, he organized a subscription for the establishment of a model farm, known as the Institut agricole de Coetbo, and greatly contributed to increase the number of savings banks through the country. He issued other cheap publications in connection with his monthly, as the Journal des instituteurs, at 36 cents a year; a geographical atlas at one cent a map; the Almanach de France, at 10 cents a copy; the Journal des gardes nationales, and the Gastronome, a culinary paper which was found in every eating house and restaurant. He was one of the founders of the illustrated weekly Musée des familles, which is still prosperous. In 1835 he projected the Panthéon littéraire, a series of 100 large vols. 8vo., which were to embrace a mass of letterpress equal to 1,000 ordinary volumes, and to present in a cheap form the standard works of every country. In 1836 he established the Presse, a political daily paper, at a yearly subscription of 40 francs, half the price before paid for such journals. This attempt brought upon him the wrath of nearly all his contemporaries. Both his public and

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