day were ridiculed by him without mercy. He died of delirium tremens. His works appeared singly, but a collection of them was published in London in 1830, and an edition has since been published by Bohn.

GILMAN, JOHN TAYLOR, governor of New Hampshire, born in Exeter, N. H., Dec. 19, 1759, died in the same place, Aug. 31, 1828. In 1775, on the morning after the news of the battle at Lexington and Concord reached Exeter, he marched with 100 other volunteers to Cambridge, Mass., where he served in the provincial army. Soon after, his father being made treasurer of the state, he became his assistant in the office. In 1780 he was a delegate from New Hampshire to the convention which met at Hartford to take measures for the defence of the country. In 1782 and 1783 he was a member of the continental congress, and in the latter year succeeded his father as treasurer of New Hampshire. He was one of the 3 commissioners appointed by the government of the old confederation to settle the accounts of the different states. In 1797 he was chosen governor, and was annually reelected for 10 successive years. In 1813, '14, and '15 he was again elected governor, after which he declined to be a candidate. He was a zealous federalist, and his popularity in New Hampshire was so great, that he was frequently chosen governor when his party was in the minority. His name is still held in veneration for honesty and patriotism.

GILMAN, SAMUEL, D.D., an American clergyman and author, born in Gloucester, Mass., Feb. 16, 1791, died in Kingston, Mass., Feb. 9, 1858, while on a visit to a married daughter in that place. He was graduated at Harvard college in 1811, studied theology, and was tutor in mathematics at Cambridge from 1817 to 1819, when he married Miss Caroline Howard, and was ordained pastor of the Unitarian church in Charleston, S. C., in which office he remained till his death. He contributed many papers to the "North American Review," "Christian Examiner," "Southern Quarterly Review," and other periodicals, on a variety of subjects connected with philosophy and general literature, and in 1856 published in Boston a volume of "Contributions to Literature, Descriptive, Critical, and Humorous, Biographical, Philosophical, and Poetical." His other prose works are the "Memoirs of a New England Village Choir" (1829), of which 3 editions have been issued, and the "Pleasures and Pains of a Student's Life (1852). He translated the satires of Boileau, and published some original poems, among which are the "History of a Ray of Light," and a poem read before the Phi Beta Kappa society of Harvard college. He took a prominent part in Charleston in promoting the temperance cause, as well as the interests of literature. CAROLINE, wife of the preceding, an American authoress, born in Boston, Oct. 8, 1794. She is a daughter of Samuel Howard of Boston, and passed her childhood at

various schools in Concord, Cambridge, and other towns of Massachusetts. At the age of 16 she wrote a poem entitled "Jephthah's Rash Vow," and soon after another on "Jairus's Daughter," which was published in the "North American Review." In 1819 she was married to the Rev. Samuel Gilman, and removed with him to Charleston, S. C., where she has since resided. She began to edit in 1832 the "Rosebud," a juvenile weekly newspaper, which subsequently took the name of the "Southern Rose," and contained articles of much literary merit. From this periodical she has reprinted at different times the "Recollections of a New England Housekeeper, "Recollections of a Southern Matron," "Ruth Raymond, or Love's Progress," "Poetry of Travelling in the United States," "Verses of a Lifetime," "Mrs. Gilman's Gift Book," and other volumes. The first two of these works attracted particular attention by their practical lessons as well as their genial simplicity and humor, and have passed through many editions. She is especially successful, also, in her books for children. Her later publications are "Oracles from the Poets" (1854), and the "Sibyl, or New Oracles from the Poets" (1854), consisting of passages of verse ingeniously arranged to correspond to numbers which are to be taken at random.

GILMANTON, a post village and township of Belknap co., N. H., 25 m. N. E. of Concord; pop. of the township in 1850, 3,282. It has manufactories of hardware, shoe pegs, carriages, &c., contains a cotton factory, 5 grist and 11 saw mills, 4 tanneries, an academy, and 10 churches, and is the seat of Gilmanton theological seminary, under the charge of the Congregationalists. It was founded in 1835, has 3 professors, 26 students, and a library of 4,500 vols.

GILMER. I. A N. W. co. of Va., watered by Little Kanawha river; area, 512 sq. m.; pop. in 1850, 3,475, of whom 72 were slaves. It has a rough surface, much of which is thickly wooded, and a rich soil, suitable for grain and pasturage. There are several salt springs and iron mines. The productions in 1850 were 117,990 bushels of Indian corn, 5,652 of wheat, 22,085 of oats, 1,023 tons of hay, 33,277 lbs. of butter, and 4,961 of tobacco. There were 2 corn and flour mills, 1 saw mill, 1 tannery, 5 churches, and 159 pupils attending public schools. Value of real estate in 1856, $839,259. Formed from Lewis and Kanawha counties in 1845, and named in honor of Thomas W. Gilmer, member of congress from Virginia. Capital, Glenville. II. A N. co. of Ga., drained by Coosawattee and other rivers; area in 1852, 792 sq. m., and pop. 9,994, of whom 205 were slaves, since which time it has been divided to form Fannin co. on the N. and E. Several spurs of the Blue Ridge, abounding in beautiful scenery, and alternating with fertile valleys, traverse parts of the county. The mineral products, comprising gold, marble, and iron, are valuable and abundant. The staples are grain,

potatoes, and hay. In 1850 the harvest amounted to 214,193 bushels of Indian corn, 24,894 of oats, 20,097 of sweet potatoes, and 5,805 lbs. of rice. There were 2 corn and flour mills, 3 saw mills, 1 tannery, 12 churches, and 205 pupils attending public schools. Named in honor of George R. Gilmer, governor of Georgia in 1830. Capital, Ellijay.

GILOLO, or ALMAHERA. See MOLUCCAS. GILPIN, BERNARD, an English ecclesiastic, born in Kentmire, Westmoreland, in 1517, died in Houghton, Durham, in 1583. He was educated at Oxford. At first a Roman Catholic, and a zealous opponent of the reformers, he became a convert to Protestantism after a disputation with Peter Martyr, and in 1552 was made vicar of Norton in the diocese of Durham. On the accession of Mary he went abroad for 3 years. On his return he was kindly received by his uncle, Dr. Tunstall, bishop of Durham, who appointed him his archdeacon, and gave him the living of Houghton, of which he remained rector till his death, declining the bishopric of Carlisle, which was offered to him. His parish and the neighboring neglected parishes, which he regularly visited, comprised a wild rugged district on the Scottish border, whose inhabitants, from centuries of marauding warfare, were in a half savage state. He went fearlessly among them, and by his preaching and benevolence acquired the titles of the apostle of the north and the father of the poor. Such was his hospitality, that every fortnight 40 bushels of corn, 20 bushels of malt, and a whole ox, with ample supplies of other kinds of provision, were consumed in his house; while on every Sunday from Michaelmas to Easter all his parishioners with their families were expect ed to visit him, 3 tables being constantly set for them. He preached so boldly against the vices of the times, and especially of the clergy, that complaints were made against him successively to the bishops of Durham and the bishop of London. He built and endowed a grammar school in his parish for the instruction of the children of the poor, and regularly educated at his own house 24 lads of promise whom he ultimately sent to the university. His life has been written by George Carleton (London, 1628), and by William Gilpin (London, 1751).

GIMBALS (Lat. gemellus, twin), a contrivance by which instruments, as mariners' compasses, nautical barometers, &c., are kept in a proper position for observation, and comparatively quiet, however disturbed the movements of the vessel in which they are carried. It consists of two concentric rings or hoops, one suspended within the other by two pivots opposite each other, and the outer one secured to a box or fixed object. Within the inner ring the instrument is suspended by two opposite pivots placed at right angles to those by which the ring is suspended. It thus swings freely in two directions at right angles, and maintains a vertical position, and when used for the compass card always presents this horizontally. VOL. VIII.-17

GIN, or GENEVA (Fr. genièvre, juniper), an alcoholic liquor, originally made in Holland, and still manufactured there upon a large scale in the distilleries of Schiedam. The great popularity acquired by this liquor has induced many attempts to reproduce it in Great Britain; but the difference between "Hollands" and "British gin" has always been very marked in favor of the former. The following account of the process of manufacture is given by Dr. Muspratt, as furnished to the late Dr. Thomson by a gentleman who spent several years in Holland solely to become familiar with the operation. (Forgeneral details of the process, see DISTILLERY.) The grains employed are only rye and barley. Of the former 228 lbs., and of barley malt 112 lbs., are mashed with 460 gallons of water at 162° F.; after infusion has taken place, cold water is added to bring the strength to 45 lbs. per barrel, or specific gravity 1.047, at which strength, after it has cooled to 80° F., it is run into the fermenting tun. To the contents of the fermenting back, which is about 500 gallons, gallon of good yeast is added; fermentation speedily sets in, the temperature rises to about 90°, and the attenuation is complete in about 48 hours. After attenuation of the mash, from 12 to 15 lbs. per barrel of saccharine matter remain undecomposed in the fermented liquor. The mash and grains are then introduced into the still, and the whole of the low wines distilled over; these are subjected to a second distillation, and the distillate after rectification is the famous geneva. A few juniper berries and sometimes hops are added in the rectification, to impart to the spirit a peculiar terebinthine flavor. Dr. Muspratt remarks upon the imperfect attenuation of the worts in this process, and the small amount of yeast employed in bringing about the fermentation. The British and Irish distillers obtain double the quantity of spirits from the same amount of worts, and this, he thinks, together with the great quantity of yeast they employ, may account for the difference in the flavor.But the common article of British gin is made very differently. The rectifiers of the Scotch and English whiskey employ for its manufacture the faints or impure products of the distillation of this liquor, rectifying it by one or more distillations, and flavoring it with juniper berries and other substances, most of which are aromatics. A number of receipts in use are given by Dr. Muspratt, from the note book of one of the most extensive and respectable distillery rectifiers in the kingdom, to exemplify the "most absurd and uncouth fashion" in which these processes are conducted. One of these receipts is as follows: 960 gallons of spirit, hydrometer proof, 96 lbs. German juniper berries, 6 lbs. coriander seeds, 4 lbs. grains of paradise, 4 lbs. angelica root, 2 lbs. orris root, 2 lbs. calamus root, 2 lbs. orange peel; 80 or 90 lbs. of liquorice powder are occasionally added to impart color and sweetness. additions to the spirit are called "gin flavorings." Beside the ingredients named car

Such

away seeds, cassia buds, crushed almond cake, lemon peel, and sulphuric acid are used in other receipts. For the west country gin, much used in Cornwall, the receipt is to introduce into the still 700 gallons of the second rectification of whiskey faints, and flavor with 14 lbs. German juniper berries, 1 lbs. calamus root, cut, and 8 lbs. of sulphuric acid. The manufacturing processes, however, furnish but an imperfect indication of this article as actually consumed. As it passes into second hands, it is commonly reduced by adding water, the effect of which is to render the mixture whitish and turbid by precipitating the oily and resinous matters that were held in solution by the spirit. These must either be redissolved or removed by a process of clarification, or, as it is called, "fining." Alum dissolved in water and subcarbonate of potash are commonly employed for the latter purpose. The alumina set free carries down with it as it subsides the finely divided oily matter, which produces the blue color of the diluted liquor, and these are replaced in the solution by sulphate of potash formed in the double decomposition of the two salts. A reprehensible practice prevails of using subacetate of lead in place of the potash salt, by which a soluble poisonous sulphate of lead remains in solution. Gin is fined also by a mixture of alum, carbonate of potash, almond oil, sulphuric acid, and alcohol, by which it acquires the property of "beading," or hanging in drops on the sides of the glass containing it. As diluting with water also reduces the strength and sweetness of the gin, the latter quality is restored by the introduction of sugar, and the former factitiously by adding the peppery flavored grains of paradise or cayenne in the form of tincture of capsicum. Sulphate of zinc (white vitriol) is sometimes employed for the same purpose. The pure Holland gin is subject to similar adulterations.

GINGER, the root of the zinziber officinale, a shrub which was first known in Asia, but is now cultivated in the West Indies and Sierra Leone. The stem grows to the height of 3 or 4 feet, and dies annually; the root continues two years. It is dug when one year old, and in the West Indies usually in January and February after the stems have withered. Two varieties are distinguished, called the black and the white ginger; the difference appears to be owing to the greater care exercised in the selection and preparation of the roots of the latter. After being washed, the outer coating or epidermis is scraped off, and the roots are then scalded to prevent germination; they are finally dried in the sun, and are ready for market. The West India or Jamaica ginger, when carried to England, is sometimes further whitened by bleaching with chloride of lime, or the fumes of burning sulphur. The black ginger is not scraped, and the roots are not so well selected. Most of that which is imported from the East Indies is of this character, and such is the article in common use in the United States. Though called black, the color of the powdered root is a light yellowish

brown; that of the white ginger, as imported from Liverpool, is a yellowish white. The young and tender roots are often selected for preserved ginger. This is prepared by removing the epidermis and boiling in sirup. The best ginger is hot and biting to the taste and of aromatic odor; the common article is less decided in these qualities, and by exposure to the air either kind loses them entirely. They may be extracted by water and alcohol. The taste appears to be due to a volatile oil of yellow color, that exists in small proportion in the root, and the aromatic quality to a soft resin. Ginger is employed as an ingredient in various domestic preparations, as beer, sweet bread, &c. Its effect is stimulative, warming, and soothing to the stomach, and for these qualities its use is introduced in medical practice. It is recommended as an excellent addition to bitter infusions and tonic powders. It is externally applied as a rubefacient; and while it excites a considerable degree of heat, it does not discolor or injuriously affect in the slightest degree the most delicate skin. Thus used, it is made into a thin paste with some alcoholic liquor and spread as a plaster. Commercial ginger is frequently adulterated, and is often more than half made up of foreign matters, as ground rice, wheat and potato flour, sago and tapioca. With these turmeric powder is used to preserve the color, and cayenne pepper and mustard are added to disguise the other substances and give factitious strength to the mixture. Of 21 samples examined by Dr. Hassall, 15 were found to be thus adulterated. Inferior qualities are made to resemble the best by bleaching and also by washing in chalk and water. Ginger thus prepared is said to be whitewashed.

GINSENG, the root of the annual shrub panax quinquefolium, the genus so named by Linnæus from panacea, with reference to the estimation in which the plant is held by the Chinese. The name of the plant among the Chinese and North American Indians very singularly signifies in their respective languages the figure of a man, given it from some fancied resemblance in the root to the human figure. Attention was first called to the plant early in the 18th century by the Jesuit missionaries, who found it in the highest estimation among the Chinese for its supposed medicinal virtues. The right of collecting the root was monopolized by the emperor, and whole districts containing the forests in which it was found were scrupulously guarded against the encroachments of any but the 10,000 Tartars employed by the emperor to collect the root. Each of these, in the year 1709, was bound to furnish 2 ounces free, and to sell the rest to the emperor for its weight in silver, which was not more than of its value. The article, indeed, was often rated at its weight in gold. Many volumes are said to have been written by the Chinese physicians upon the virtues of the ginseng. They introduced it in almost all their prescriptions for the nobility, with the view of restoring strength to the sick, and

increasing the vigor of the healthy. The root was used to make a decoction, and the leaves for an invigorating tea. The growth of the plant was found to be below the 39th and 47th degrees of latitude, and an account of it being brought to America, it was discovered first in Canada by Father Lafitau, a missionary among the Iroquois, and in 1718 a description of it was published in the "Memoirs" of the French academy. The French soon engaged in collecting and exporting it, and at one time it was impossible to hire the Indians about Montreal and Quebec for any other purpose than gathering this plant. Large profits were made by the early shipments; but the Chinese at last began to question the qualities of the American article, and its price accordingly depreciated. As late, however, as the year 1832, the shipments of ginseng from the United States amounted to 407,067 pounds, valued at $99,303. The plant has been found in the mountainous portions of the states, in rich and shady woods, from Canada to Tennessee. The principal collections of it for shipment are now made in western Virginia, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Minnesota, and Wisconsin. In Richland co., western Wisconsin, the trade is stated to have amounted to $40,000 in 1858, and has been estimated at $80,000 in 1859. In Minnesota the collection of it was undertaken with great zeal in the early part of the year 1859, and immense quantities were sent to the east, although that gathered in the spring is considered far inferior to that gathered in the autumn. Attempts to cultivate it in gardens have proved unsuccessful. It is regarded in this country of no value as a medicine, and if found in the shops of the druggists it is only to supply the demand for its use as a masticatory, some people having a fondness for chewing it. The taste is rather agreeable, being sweet and bitter, and somewhat aromatic and pungent. Its decoction is a lubricating mucilage, with some degree of aromatic warmth. In the materia medica it is classed among demulcents, and resembles liquorice in taste and external qualities more than any other medicine.

GIOBERTI, VINCENZO, an Italian philosopher, priest, and statesman, born in Turin, April 5, 1801, died in Paris, Oct. 26, 1852. His family, originally of the French middle class, had long been established in Piedmont, and had suffered in commerce severe reverses of fortune. He lost his father in infancy, and the piety of his mother prompted him at an early age to choose the ecclesiastical profession. He studied at the university of Turin, received the degree of doctor of theology in 1823, and 2 years later was ordained to the priesthood. Becoming professor of theology at Turin, he spent several years in scholastic retirement, engaged in various studies of history and philosophy, especially in their relations to religion, and laid the foundation of his erudition, which was afterward unrivalled among his countrymen. Religion and patriotism were the twin motives with which he inspired his pupils. On the accession of

Charles Albert he was appointed court chaplain, but resigned the office in 1833. This step and the liberal tone of his university lectures made him suspected as an accomplice of the revolutionary schemes of "young Italy," and he was suddenly arrested. As, however, he had not coöperated with the secret societies, and had even formally refused to do so, he escaped with 4 months' imprisonment, followed by a sentence of banishment. The first year of his exile he spent in Paris, with the design of pursuing his studies of Christian, and especially Italian philosophy, and with the hope that the literary treasures in the reserved parts of the public libraries might be opened to him. In this he was disappointed, and forced by poverty he renounced or postponed his plans of authorship, and went to Brussels, where he was offered by a friend a humble position as teacher in a private school. In this office he remained 11 years. Meantime he obtained ample privileges in the public libraries of that city, resumed his interrupted studies, and produced his philosophical works, the Teorica del sovranaturale (Brussels, 1838), and the Introduzione allo studio della filosofia (2 vols., Brussels, 1840). The mastery displayed in the latter work at once of the highest problems of theology, philosophy, and history, its profound expositions and hostile criticisms of the principal modern philosophical systems, and its brilliant and novel subjection of science to revelation, and of all the culture of life to religion, caused him to be immediately recognized as one of the chiefs of Catholic philosophy. Abandoning the psychological method, which he called the great modern heresy in philosophy, he revived the theory of the ideal vision, "a most ancient doctrine, which sprang up at the origin of the race, was preserved in part by the philosophers of the Orient, was not ignored by Plato, was matured by the Alexandrians, was freed from all mixture with pantheism by the early Christian fathers, especially by St. Augustine, was professed by some illustrious realists of the middle age, and was at last exalted to the dignity of a scientific theorem by Malebranche." Endowed with this vision or super-intelligence, the human mind sees not only the archetypal ideas of things in the supreme mind, but also the creative act which individualizes them in time; communes not only with the speculative divine intellect, but with the practical divine will, and apprehends the miraculous work of creative omnipotence by being a constant spectator of the immanent act of creation. The key to all philosophy and to all knowledge is what he terms the ideal formula L'Ente crea le esis

tenze (Ens creat existentias: “Being, i. e. God, creates existences"). This formula, as the first, axiomatic, and universal truth, he restores to modern philosophy, and makes it the ontological basis of all dialectics, the primum philosophicum. It embraces the universe in the duality of the necessary and the contingent, binds these together by the link of the substantial creation, and reduces them to the primordial unity of a

Being, not abstract or generic, but concrete, individual, absolute, and creative. A substance or first cause, an organic multiplicity of substances or second causes, and a real and free act by virtue of which the creative God unites himself with the world of created existences, are the 3 integral ideal elements which constitute together the ideal organism. They are not only the basis of the whole created order, but reappear in special applications in every fact of nature and every act of human life, God universally entering as creator in the order of second causes. Thus in ethics the ideal formula is: "God, by means of the human will, produces the good," which may be resolved into the two corresponding formulas: "The will, by subjecting the passions to law, produces virtue," and "Virtue, by reconciling the passions with law, produces happiness." He recognizes two cosmic cycles, the one the procession of existences by way of creation from God as first cause, and the other the return of existences to God as final cause. All practical life, all manifestations of created activity, belong to this second cycle; and the absolute and universal law of God, who alone hath true and complete autonomy, directs this process of return, which by reason of sin has become a process of redemption. The law corresponds in the second cosmic cycle to the creative act in the first, and is the means of a moral cosmos, as the latter is of a physical cosmos. In the creative cycle, God is the only agent; in the moral cycle, man coöperates with the divine Actor, imitating him, and aiming to produce under his guidance his own uprightness and happiness. It was rather by the remarkably original form of its statements than by the novelty of its ideas that the Introduzione exerted its influence, and caused Gioberti to be hailed as the reconstructor of modern philosophy. It was quoted with applause in the charges of French and Italian bishops, and, though assailed by a portion of the Catholic press, was examined, judged, and commended by Pope Gregory XVI. Eloquent, passionate, and full of bold and felicitous digressions, it contains more pages on literature, art, and especially politics, than on the philosophical theory which it introduces, and foreshadows the character of a publicist which the author was soon to assume. In his work Del bello (Brussels, 1841) he applied his philosophy to aesthetics, defining beauty to be "the individual union of an archetypal idea with a fantastic element made by the aesthetic imagination." In a fine criticism of the Divina Commedia he maintains its superiority to all other poems. The first work that made him popularly known was the Del primato morale e civile degli Italiani (Brussels, 1843), the object of which was to restore in Italy not only the philosophy of the Christian fathers but the Guelph policy of the papacy. As applied to human society, the ideal formula becomes: "Religion creates the morality and civilization of mankind." This he states to be a truth of universal history, the civil orders having always sprung from the sacerdotal,

The

cities from temples, laws from oracles, philosophy from theology, and popular culture from religion. Italy is the sacerdotal nation of Roman Catholic Europe, being elected by Providence to guard the second dispensation, as Israel was to guard the first. Hence her precocious medieval civilization, when the popes exercised civil dictatorship over the monarchs. rest of Europe being then barbarous, religion was obliged to give a large place to the ascetic and contemplative life, and to institutions of impressive splendor, fit to awe and soften the fierce men who beheld them. But in modern society, when the European nations have attained their majority, and the culture of the enlightened laity is equal to that of the clergy, the study of the latter should be to ally piety with the active life of man, with industry, letters, learning, and all the agencies and ornaments of civilization. He affirms that the priesthood has failed to recognize the changes which have been going on about it, the progress of civil and social culture, and that it has attempted to retain the people in tutelage beyond the proper time, after it has lost its control of them by having lost its former moral and intellectual superiority over them. Hence a fatal schism exists between the ecclesiastical and temporal orders, between spiritual and secular culture, which is the source of all the evils that afflict modern society. The remedy which he proposes is the voluntary cession by the priesthood of a dominion which has become incompatible with modern civilization, and a thorough alliance of sacerdotal and lay culture, a blending of the superhuman excellences of the gospel with the ancient spirit of Athens and Rome, an interfusion of Plato with Dante, Brutus with Michel Angelo, Cato with Hildebrand, and Lycurgus with Carlo Borromeo. He calls upon the Italians and the Italian clergy to inaugurate this new civilization, higher and more exquisite than any that the world has hitherto known, urging the latter to put themselves at the head of social movements, and to be the champions and not the enemies of the demands of the age for free institutions. Italy must renounce the ancient dictatorship, but he claims for the pope an arbitratorship in the affairs of the European nations, founded, however, only on his spiritual authority. By this policy, religion would harmoniously resume its place as the leading influence in society. The programme which he proposed for immediate Italian politics was: a confederation of the states; the introduction of reforms; a religious head, the pope; a military head, the king of Sardinia; a capital, Rome; a citadel, Turin; and above all, a sentiment of nationality in the Italian princes. From the publication of the Primato, Gioberti was regarded as the leader of the moderate liberal party; in spirit, aim, and practical tendency he was in sympathy with the party of "young Italy," from which he differed by including among the instruments for reconstructing society his ideal philosophy and the Catholic church. Few works have been re