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labor more directly upon his "Decline and Fall," which he had been wont to "contemplate at awful distance." His library was extensive, and had been selected with care; his materials were around him, and he wrote with method. With pen in hand he plunged into "the ocean of the Augustan history," pored over all the remains, Greek and Latin, between Trajan and the last of the western Cæsars, studied medals and inscriptions, the Theodosian code, the Christian apologists, the collections of Tillemont, the annals and antiquities of Muratori, and brooded long over his chaos of materials before he was able to determine the limits, divisions, or even the title of his work. He practised on his style, cultivated his ear for harmony, and finally by labor acquired his elevated and sonorous mannerism. The 1st chapter of the history he rewrote 3 times before he was satisfied with it, and the 2d and 3d chapters twice, after which he proceeded with facility. In 1774 he entered the house of commons as member for the borough of Liskeard, in which he sat for 8 years a silent supporter of the measures of Lord North. Such was his timidity that he was never able to address the house; more than once he prepared himself to speak, but when the moment for action came his courage wholly deserted him. Near the close of 1775 the first volume of his history was completed. It was refused by the bookseller Elmsly, but accepted by Cadell and Strahan. It appeared in Feb. 1776; its success was immediate, and, for a quarto and grave historical production, unprecedented. The 1st edition was exhausted in a few days; a 2d and 3d were soon called for. Hume and Robertson, to whom he sent copies, wrote him congratulatory letters. His splendid theme and imposing style fixed the attention of the public, while his malevolent views of Christianity in the last two chapters called forth a host of replies. Watson, Taylor, Milner, Lord Hales, Davies of Oxford, and Dr. Priestley were the most noted of his assailants; but to Mr. Davies alone would the historian consent to reply, because this critic had questioned not his faith, but his historical fidelity. His "Vindication" soon appeared, in which he freed himself from the charge of misquotation. Meantime he studied chemistry and anatomy for recreation. He wrote a political pamphlet in French, in defence of the ministry, and was rewarded with a sinecure place in the board of trade worth £800 a year. He was a member of the literary club, and a noted conversationalist. The 2d and 3d volumes of his history were published in 1781, and were received with avidity, though less clamorously than the 1st. On the fall of Lord North's ministry and the loss of his salary by the abolition of the board of trade, Gibbon thought himself too poor to live in England, and determined to fix his abode at Lausanne, whither he repaired in 1783 to reside with his friend Deyverdun. His 4th volume, embracing the reign of Justinian and the chapter on the Institutes, was already finished, but on the borders of the lake of Geneva he allowed VOL. VIII.-16

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nearly a year to pass before he vigorously resumed his work. He was fond of society, and became highly popular among the Swiss; he gave balls and suppers, frequented assemblies, and even after he was fairly reseated at his task mingled gayety with constant study. Eminent visitors, as Prince Henry of Prussia, M. and Mme. Necker, Mr. Fox, and the duchess of Devonshire, discovered and enlivened his Swiss retreat. He wrote steadily and rapidly till he completed his work. "It was on the day, or rather night, of the 27th of June, 1787, between the hours of 11 and 12, that I wrote the last lines of the last page in a summer house in my garden. The air was temperate, the sky was serene, the silver orb of the moon was reflected from the waters, and all nature was silent. I will not dissemble the first emotions of joy on the recovery of my freedom, and perhaps the establishment of my fame. But my pride was soon humbled, and a sober melancholy was spread over my mind by the idea that I had taken an everlasting leave of an old and agreeable companion; and that whatsoever might be the future date of my history, the life of the historian must be short and precarious." He went over to England bearing the manuscript of the last 3 volumes with him, and on his 51st birthday, the period selected by himself, they were issued. The work was already established in fame; it was translated into German, French, and Italian. His profit from all the volumes is stated to have been £6,000, and that of the booksellers £60,000; but on this subject nothing is known. The latter volumes were reproached for indecencies, veiled for the most part in the learned languages in the notes. Gibbon returned to Lausanne in July, 1788, to find his friend Deyverdun dying. He hired the house which they had occupied together, and invited the family of the Severys to live with him, consisting of a father, mother, son, and daughter. They presided over his house and amused his leisAt this time he wrote his own "Memoirs," which were published posthumously. The French revolution disturbed his repose. Lausanne was filled with French emigrants; the Neckers with their daughter, afterward Mme. De Staël, were his neighbors at Coppet. Lady Sheffield, the wife of his intimate friend Lord Sheffield, died about this time, and Gibbon, partly in the hope of consoling his friend, partly in fear of the revolution, set out for England in the spring of 1793. He had long suffered from hydrocele, which he had studiously concealed, and he died calmly after undergoing 3 painful operations in vain. He was buried in Lord Sheffield's family burial place at Fletching, in Sussex, and his epitaph was written by Dr. Parr.-In appearance Gibbon was heavy and dull, his countenance showed no trace of intellect, and his features were unattractive. He was fond of fine dress, and his manners were well bred but pompous. He conversed with fluency in sounding language and well ordered periods. Few generous or elevated acts are told of him. His

ure.

"Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire" is admitted to be the greatest historical work in the English language, and one of the greatest creations of any single intellect. It is hardly less than the history of the world for nearly 13 centuries, for it comprises an account of all the nations who influenced the destinies of the Roman empire both in the West and East. Its vast design, including the decay and ruin of an ancient civilization and the birth and formation of a new order of things; its lucid arrangement, subordinating an infinite variety of subjects to one main and predominant idea, tracing the progress of hostile religions, the influx of successive hosts of barbarians from remote and opposite quarters, the development of the Roman law, the details of ecclesiastical history, and the gradual rise of modern states, according to the impressions which they made on the tottering fabric of Roman greatness; its singular condensation of matter, general accuracy, and monotonously splendid, imposing, and picturesque style, are among the qualities which secure its eminence in historical literature. "Christianity alone," says Milman, "receives no embellishment from the magic of Gibbon's language; his imagination is dead to its moral dignity; it is kept down by a general tone of jealous disparagement, or neutralized by a painfully elaborate exposition of its darker and degenerate periods."-The best editions are those edited by the Rev. H. H. Milman, with notes, (12 vols., London, 1838-'9; 2d ed., 6 vols., 1846; New York and Boston, 1856), and by an English churchman, with variorum notes, in Bohn's "British Classics" (7 vols., London, 1853-5); also, best of all, that in Murray's "British Classics," with additional notes by Dr. William Smith (8 vols., London, 1854-'5). Gibbon's memoirs and miscellaneous writings were published under the care of Lord Sheffield (2 vols., London, 1796, to which a 3d volume was added in 1815).

GIBBS, GEORGE, an American mineralogist, born in Newport, R. I., Jan. 8, 1782, died in Newtown, N. Y., Aug. 5, 1833. Early becoming interested in the study of mineralogy, he collected during his travels in Europe, chiefly by purchase, a very extensive and valuable cabinet of minerals, in some respects the richest ever brought together in the United States. This collection he brought home in 1807, and set it up in the public rooms of Yale college, where it remained without charge from 1811 to 1825. In the latter year it was purchased for the college for $20,000.

GIBBS, JOSIAH WILLARD, an American philologist, born in Salem, Mass., April 30, 1790, was graduated at Yale college in 1809, and was tutor in that institution from 1811 to 1815. In 1824 he was appointed professor of sacred literature in the theological department of Yale college, and he still continues in this station. In 1853 the degree of LL.D. was conferred on him by the college of New Jersey. In his special department, and in philological and gram

matical studies generally, he is well known as a scholar of uncommon thoroughness and accuracy. His principal publications are, a translation of Storr's "Essay on the Historical Sense of the New Testament" (12mo., Boston, 1817); translation of Gesenius's "Hebrew Lexicon of the Old Testament" (8vo., Andover, 1824;) "Manual Hebrew and English Lexicon," abridged from Gesenius (8vo., Andover, 1828; 2d ed., New Haven, 1832); "Philological Studies" (12mo., New Haven, 1857); "Latin Analyst" (New Haven, 1858). He is the author of several sections of Prof. W. C. Fowler's work on the English language, and has contributed to the periodical works of his time numerous important papers on topics of philology and criticism.

GIBEON, one of the principal cities of Palestine, about 5 m. N. W. from Jerusalem. Before the conquest of Canaan by Joshua, it was inhabited by Hivites, who by stratagem secured their own safety and protection from Israel; though when the deception was discovered the Gibeonites were degraded to the condition of hereditary "hewers of wood and drawers of water unto all the congregation." It is not mentioned as one of the royal cities of the Canaanites, though described as a great city, and as one of the royal cities." When the 5 kings of the Amorites besieged Gibeon because of its having made peace with Israel, Joshua marched against them, and at his command "the sun stood still, and the moon stayed, until the people had avenged themselves upon their enemies" (Josh. x. 1-14). The Gibeonites were persecuted and nearly exterminated by Saul. On the division of Canaan, Gibeon fell to the tribe of Benjamin; afterward it was given to the Levites; toward the close of David's and in the beginning of Solomon's reign, the sanctuary was there, and there dwelt the high priest. Near to it was a pool, probably the

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great waters" referred to by Jeremiah, where Abner was defeated by Joab, and also a great stone, or monumental pillar. It is identified with the modern El Jib, an irregular village, seated on the summit of a hill, and containing massive ruins.

GIBRALTAR (anc. Mons Calpe), a fortified promontory of Andalusia, Spain, belonging to Great Britain, and giving name to a town and bay on its W. side, and to the strait connecting the Atlantic and Mediterranean; lat. of Europa point, its S. extremity, 36° 2′ 30′′ N., long. 5° 15' 12" W. This promontory and Ceuta (anc. Mons Abyla), on the opposite coast of Africa, constitute the ancient pillars of Hercules, long regarded as the western boundary of the world. It consists of rock, principally a gray compact marble, 3 m. long from N. to S. and but 7 m. in circumference, about 1,600 feet above the level of the sea at its highest point, and connected with the mainland by a narrow sandy isthmus, called the neutral ground, about 14 m. long. The N., E., and S. sides are so steep and precipitous as to be almost wholly inaccessible; the W. side, toward the bay, slopes down to

the water, and here are situated the town and the principal fortifications. The rock is perforated by a number of remarkable caverns, in which many bones of animals and of men have been found. There is little soil, but acacia, fig, and orange trees, and a variety of plants, grow in some sheltered glens, Among the few native animals are the only wild monkeys found in Europe, a peculiar tailless species, which are protected from destruction by public sentiment, being regarded as almost sacred. Immense sums have been expended upon the fortification of this rock, which nature and art combined would appear to have rendered literally impregnable. The most remarkable works are the galleries two passages cut through the solid rock, between 2 and 3 m. long, wide enough to admit a carriage, and pierced with port holes at every 12 yards in such a manner as to command the bay and the neutral ground. About 1,000 guns altogether are mounted upon the rock. In 711 a body of Moors took possession of this promontory, and named it from their leader Gebel el Tarik (Tarik's mountain), whence the present name. Of the fortifications erected by them, a tower still remains. They held it till 1309, and again from 1333 to 1462, when they were finally expelled by the Spaniards. The latter greatly strengthened it, and regarded it as impregnable; but it was taken by a combined English and Dutch fleet in 1704, and was confirmed to Great Britain by the treaty of Utrecht in 1713. In Feb. 1727, the Spaniards attacked it with a large force, but raised the siege on the signing of preliminaries of a peace with Great Britain in May of the same year. In 1779 the attempt was renewed with the aid of a French squadron. By June 21 all communication between the rock and the mainland was cut off, and in July the fortress was completely blockaded. The cannonading began in September on the part of the besieged, but the Spaniards did not open their fire until Jan. 1780. The attack and defence which now followed fixed the attention of the whole of Europe for the next 3 years. On the part of the besiegers all the resources of war were brought to bear both by land and sea. The best engineers of France and Spain directed the approaches; a powerful fleet anchored in the bay, and for 3 weeks an incessant bombardment was kept up from 80 mortars and 200 pieces of battering cannon. The garrison, commanded by Gen. Eliott (afterward Lord Heathfield), and numbering 7,000 men, made a heroic resistance. On Nov. 27, 1781, they destroyed the enemies' works in a sortie, but the allies at once reconstructed them, and soon brought 1,000 pieces of artillery to play against the fortress, while 47 ships of the line and innumerable smaller vessels menaced it by sea, and an army of 40,000 men conducted the operations on land. The whole enterprise was directed by the duke de Crillon. Meanwhile Admiral Rodney, having defeated the fleet of Count de Grasse, succeeded in throwing relief

into the fort, and the British were still further encouraged by the effect of the red-hot shot which they discharged against the batteries and shipping. In Sept. 1782, the allies attempted to silence the British fire by means of 10 enormous floating batteries constructed under the chevalier d'Areon in such a manner as to be deemed invulnerable. Each was manned by a picked crew and mounted from 10 to 18 guns. On the 13th they were put in motion, and at about 10 in the morning one of the most dreadful cannonadings known in history was opened on both sides. It continued for several hours with little advantage to either party, but late in the afternoon the effect of the red-hot shot from the garrison became apparent, and soon after midnight 9 of the batteries were on fire. Of their crews about 400 men were saved by the exertions of the British; the rest perished by the flames, explosions, or drowning. The besieged had 16 killed and 68 wounded. Several attempts to storm the rock by land proved equally disastrous; the British received fresh reenforcements, and in Feb. 1783, the siege was raised on the announcement of the general peace. -The town of Gibraltar is built near the foot of the N. W. side of the hill, with paved and lighted streets and houses in the English style; pop. in 1854, 15,823. Its principal edifices are the residences of the governor and lieutenant-governor, the admiralty, barracks, storehouses, cathedral, Spanish church, synagogue, naval hospital, lunatic asylum, and almshouses. It contains a public library with 15,000 volumes, a medical library, and one founded by the merchants. Great pains are taken to prevent the increase of new residents, and foreigners are allowed to remain only during specified periods and on giving security for good behavior. The trade has declined since the commencement of the 19th century. The exports to Great Britain comprise wool, tobacco, wine, silk, and senna, and the imports consist chiefly of wine, spirits, tobacco, spices, tea, and cotton. Vessels entered in 1854, 3,673, tonnage 589,560; vessels cleared, 3,598, tonnage 581,463. The revenue in 1855 amounted to £30,899, and the expenditures to £29,830.The bay of Gibraltar, or Algeciras bay, lying between Cabarita and Europa points, is 5 m. in greatest width from E. to W. and 8 m. long, deep, convenient, and well sheltered. It has 2 moles respectively 700 and 1,100 feet long. -The strait, anciently called the straits of Hercules, or of Gades (Fretum Gaditanum), extends about 36 m. nearly E. and W., its width at the E. extremity, between Europa point in Spain and Ceuta point in Africa, being about 15 m., and at the W., between Capes Trafalgar on the Spanish and Spartel on the African coast, 24 m. Its narrowest point is about the middle, where the opposite coasts are but 9 m. apart. There is a constant current through this channel from the Atlantic into the Mediterranean, and two counter-currents, of inferior breadth and rapidity, flow westward, one along each coast.

GIBSON. I. A W. co. of Tenn.; area, 520 sq.

m.; pop. in 1850, 19,548, of whom 4,194 were slaves. The surface is generally even and the soil fertile. The productions in 1850 were 1,107,730 bushels of Indian corn, 93,734 of oats, 4,918 bales of cotton, and 466,390 lbs. of tobacco. There were 17 corn and flour mills, 10 saw mills, 5 tanneries, 1 newspaper office, 43 churches, and 1,150 pupils attending public schools. The Mobile and Ohio railroad, and the projected route of the Memphis and Ohio railroad, pass through the county. Capital, Trenton. II. A S. W. co. of Ind., bordering on Illinois; area, 449 sq. m.; pop. in 1850, 10,771. It has an undulating surface and a rich soil, watered by the Wabash and Patoka rivers, the former of which forms the W. boundary of the county. The productions in 1850 were 947,590 bushels of Indian corn, 43,888 of wheat, 77,636 of oats, and 1,693 tons of hay. There were 15 corn and flour mills, 4 saw mills, 3 tanneries, 2 newspaper offices, 19 churches, and 2,060 pupils attending public schools. Live stock and coal are among the most valuable exports. The Wabash and Erie canal and the Evansville and Crawfordsville railroad intersect the county. Capital, Princeton.

GIBSON, JOHN, an English sculptor, born at Conway, North Wales, in 1791. His father soon after removed to Liverpool, and young Gibson, after endeavoring to prevail on his parents to allow him to study painting, for which he had shown a predilection, was articled at the age of 14 as a cabinet maker, and soon after to a wood carver. In this employment he remained until a visit to the marble yard of the Messrs. Francis filled him with the desire of becoming a sculptor. These gentlemen, upon hearing of the circumstance, purchased his indentures and took him into their employment. As his talent began to develop itself he attracted the notice, among others, of William Roscoe, who invited him to his house, lent him prints and models, and encouraged him to pursue the career of a sculptor. A fund was soon raised in Liverpool to enable him to prosecute his studies in Italy, and in 1817 he departed for Rome, where he has since resided. Lord Brougham and others had given him letters to Canova, and that eminent sculptor, after examining Gibson's sketches, not only received him into his studio, but offered him pecuniary assistance, and recommended him to some of the wealthiest patrons of art. On the death of Canova he placed himself under Thorwaldsen, thus enjoying within the space of a few years the society and tuition of the two most famous sculptors of the century, whose distinctive qualities he has very happily united in his own works. It was not until 1827 that Gibson sent his first contribution to the exhibition of the royal academy, "Psyche borne by the Zephyrs," executed for Sir George Beaumont. Several other works followed, and in 1836 he was elected a full member of the academy, having for some years previous been an associate. The works which have left Gibson's studio

during his long career are principally portrait statues, and ideal pieces founded on classic models. Of the former, the best known are his statues of Queen Victoria in Buckingham palace, Osborne, and the new palace at Westminster, the 3 of Huskisson in Liverpool, and those of Sir Robert Peel and George Stephenson. They are all works of an impressive character, and would be nearly perfect if the artist had not adhered to the now nearly obsolete practice of habiting his figures in classic costume, whereby it has been said his British statesmen look like Roman senators with English faces. His ideal figures and bass-reliefs are imbued with the spirit of Greek art, for which the sculptor has always professed the profoundest reverence. Refinement of feeling, high poetical imagination, exceeding gracefulness of form and expression, and an almost unrivalled delicacy of execution, characterize this class of his sculptures, of which the "Mars and Cupid" and "Hero and Leander," in the possession of the duke of Devonshire, the Aurora," "Sappho," "Hebe," "Proserpine," "Sleeping Shepherd," and the "Venus," for St. George's hall in Liverpool, are favorable examples. Gibson is the first of modern sculptors who has had the daring to introduce color into his works. In some of the subordinate details the statue of the queen and the "Aurora" were slightly tinted, but the Venus above mentioned showed the innovation carried to its furthest limit. This statue, which was exhibited in 1854, in a room prepared for the special purpose, is entirely colored of a flesh tint, and the eyes, hair, and parts of the drapery counterfeit the resemblance to actual life as nearly as color can do it. The practice has encountered much hostile criticism, but the sculptor defends it by a reference to Greek precedents. Gibson has seldom visited England, and only for brief periods, the first time being after an absence of 28 years. At Rome, he is a kind and genial adviser of young art students, and beloved by all classes. Among his most recent pupils was Miss Hosmer, the American sculptress.

GIBSON, JOHN BANNISTER, LL.D., an American jurist, born in Shearman's Valley, Penn., Nov. 8, 1780, died in Philadelphia, May 3, 1853. He was a son of Lieut-Col. George Gibson, an officer of the revolutionary army, who fell in St. Clair's expedition against the Indians on the Miami in 1791. He studied at Dickinson college, and previously at the grammar school of that institution, read law under Thomas Duncan, Esq., afterward judge of the supreme court of Pennsylvania, was admitted to the bar of Cumberland co. in 1803, practised successively in Carlisle and Beaver, Penn., and in Hagerstown, Md., returned to Carlisle, was elected by the republican party in 1810 and again in 1811 to the state legislature, in which he filled a prominent station, and in July, 1813, was appointed presiding judge of the 11th judicial district of Pennsylvania. In 1816 he was made associate justice of the supreme court of the

state, and on the death of Judge Tilghman in 1827 he became chief justice. He resigned this position in 1838, but was immediately reappointed to it by the governor. By a change in the constitution, making the judiciary elective, his seat became vacant in 1851, but he was elected associate justice in the same year, being the only one of the former incumbents who received the nomination of the democratic party. He continued to discharge the functions of this office until attacked by his last illness.

GIBSON, THOMAS MILNER, an English statesman, born in 1807. He is the son of Major Gibson, was graduated at Cambridge in 1830, and was a member of parliament for Ipswich and a follower of Sir Robert Peel from 1837 to 1839, when he engaged in the agitation against the corn laws. He thereupon resigned his seat, and remained out of parliament until 1841, when after a violent contest he was elected member for Manchester, and after the passage of the free trade measures in 1846 he became a member of the privy council and vice-president of the board of trade, but resigned that office in 1848. The act to amend the laws relating to the stamp duties on newspapers was passed chiefly through his exertions (June 15, 1855), and he was one of the principal supporters of the law admitting Jews into parliament, which was eventually passed July 23, 1858. He is also a zealous champion of a national system of education. As a member of the peace party he opposed, in concert with his colleague and friend John Bright, the Russian war, which cost him his seat for Manchester at the general election of 1857. In May, 1859, he was reelected as a member for Ashton; and the presidency of the board of trade having been offered to Mr. Richard Cobden by Lord Palmerston, but declined by that gentleman, Mr. Gibson accepted that office.

GIDDINGS, JOSHUA REED, an American statesman, born at Athens, Bradford co., Penn., Oct. 6, 1795. In his infancy his parents removed to Canandaigua, N. Y., where they remained till he was 10 years old, when they emigrated to Ashtabula co., Ohio, among the first settlers in that part of the Western Reserve. In Ohio he had only such facilities for study as he could command in the family circle, in the intervals of hard labor upon his father's farm. In 1812, when less than 17 years old, he enlisted as a soldier for active service, being accepted as a substitute for an older brother. He was one of the expedition sent to the peninsula north of Sandusky bay, where, in two battles on one day with a superior force of Indians, it lost nearly of its number in killed and wounded. At the close of his short term of service as a soldier he commenced school teaching. In 1817 he commenced the study of the law with the Hon. Elisha Whittlesey, and was admitted to the bar in 1820. In 1826 he was chosen a representative to the state legislature, and after serving one term, declined a reëlection, and devoted himself to his profession till 1838,

when he was elected to congress as the successor of Mr. Whittlesey. Having been for some years an active abolitionist, and entering congress at a time of great excitement on the subject of slavery, he not only took his stand by the side of John Quincy Adams as a supporter of the right of petition, but became at once a prominent champion of the abolition of slavery and the slave trade in the district of Columbia and the territories under the jurisdiction of the national government. Attentive to all the ordinary duties of legislation, and a frequent participator in discussions respecting the tariff and other current political topics, he yet became distinguished chiefly by the zeal and pertinacity of his opposition to slavery. His first attempt to speak against the slave trade in the district of Columbia was made Feb. 11, 1839, when he was silenced by the enforcement of a rule enacted for the purpose of preventing the discussion of that and kindred topics. On Feb. 9, 1841, he delivered his first anti-slavery speech, upon the Indian war in Florida, which he contended was begun and carried on in the interest of slavery. In the autumn of 1841 the Creole, an American vessel, sailed from Virginia for New Orleans, with a cargo of 136 slaves. The slaves rose upon the master and crew, and, after a brief struggle, in which they killed one man, took possession of the vessel and entered the British port of Nassau, where their right to freedom was recognized and protected. This event created an intense excitement in the United States, and Mr. Webster, then secretary of state, in a letter addressed to Mr. Edward Everett, U. S. minister at London, avowed the intention of the government, in the interest of the owners, to demand indemnification for the slaves. On March 21, 1842, Mr. Giddings brought the subject before congress in a series of resolutions, in which it was declared that, as slavery was an abridgment of natural right, it could have no force beyond the territorial jurisdiction that created it; that when a ship left the waters of any state, the persons on board ceased to be subject to the slave laws of such state, and thenceforth came under the jurisdiction of the United States, which had no constitutional authority to hold slaves; that the persons on board the Creole, in resuming their natural rights of personal liberty, violated no law of the United States, incurred no legal penalty, and were justly liable to no punishment; and that any attempt to reënslave them was unauthorized by the constitution and incompatible with the national honor. These resolutions created an excitement so intense that Mr. Giddings, yielding to the importunities of some of his party friends, who thought the time unfavorable for their consideration, withdrew them, declaring his intention to present them on a future occasion. Mr. Botts of Virginia thereupon introduced a resolution, declaring the conduct of Mr. Giddings, in offering the resolutions, to be "altogether unwarranted and unwarrantable, and deserving the severe condemnation of the

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