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THE

NEW AMERICAN CYCLOPÆDIA.

FUGGER

FUGGER, the name of a German family of wealthy merchants. Its founder was JOHANNES, a weaver of Graben, near Augsburg, who lived in the first half of the 14th century, and acquired a large property in lands by commerce in cloths. His son, of the same name, continued the occupation of weaver, to which he also added that of cloth merchant, and obtained by marriage the right of citizenship in Augsburg. ANDREAS, eldest son of the latter, lived about 1400, and was known as "Fugger the Rich." The nephews of the last, ULRICH, GEORG, and JAKOв, born about the middle of the 15th century, covered the Baltic with their commerce, which extended also to Hungary, Italy, and even to India, were able to influence the affairs of the empire by lending money to the princes, married into the most illustrious families, and were ennobled by the emperor Maximilian I. After attaining to high political dignities, they continued their commerce, built in the Tyrol the splendid castle of Fuggerau, greatly embellished the city of Augsburg, and found a new source of wealth by working the mines of Innthal, Falkenstein, and Schwartz. The only heirs of these 3 brothers were the 2 sons of Ulrich, RAIMUND, born in 1489, died in 1535, and ANTON, born in 1493, died in 1560. The former of these patronized letters and the sciences, and was saluted in many poor poems as the Mecenas of his times. The latter raised the family to its highest degree of power and prosperity. The emperor Charles V. resorted to them both when pressed for money, yielded to them the privilege of coining, made them counts and princes of the empire, and was lodged in the splendid mansion of Anton when he attended the diet of Augsburg. They established at Augsburg a cabinet of antiquities, a gallery of paintings, and a botanical garden, built the church of Saint Maurice, paid 3,000 crowns to Titian for a few paintings, and collected the 2 largest libraries that had yet been seen in Germany. Their name was given to a street in Madrid, and "as rich as a Fugger" became a proverb. Upon the death of these 2 brothers the family divided into numerous lines, and its most important branches at present are the princely houses of Kirchberg and Babenhausen. FUGITIVE, literally, one who flies away. VOL. VIII.-1

FUGITIVE

At common law there was the fugitive from justice; and the name of fugitive was also given sometimes to a person escaping from arrest or imprisonment for debt or from apprenticeship; and in the feudal law an escaping serf or bondsman was regarded as a fugitive. In the United States the name is commonly given to one who, in the words of the federal constitution, is "held to service or labor in one state under the laws thereof," and escapes into another;" that is, a fugitive slave. A fugitive from justice is more exactly defined as one who, having committed a crime within one jurisdiction, escapes from punishment by fleeing into another. The law of nations certainly does not permit the sovereignty from which the fugitive has escaped to enter, proprio vigore, into the country where he has taken refuge, and seizing him there, take him home for punishment. Of this there is no question whatever. But it has been much discussed whether the law of nations requires the arrest of the fugitive in the territory to which he flies by the authorities thereof, and the delivering or extradition of him to the authorities from whom he has fled. The weight of authority is, perhaps, against any such obligation or duty in the absence of treaty stipulations. But such treaties have been frequently made of late years, and are justly regarded as the effect and indication of advancing civilization. The American government has made treaties providing for the extradition of fugitives from justice with England, France, Bavaria, Prussia, Hanover, and other states of the German confederation. These treaties usually specify the crimes which fugitives must be accused of to be delivered up; and also provide that no country shall be required to deliver its own citizens or subjects to a foreign country for trial and punishment.-As between the states of the American Union, extradition is made compulsory by the federal constitution, art. iv., sec. 2, which provides that "a person charged in any state with treason, felony, or other crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in another state, shall, on demand of the executive authority of the same state from which he fled, be delivered up to be removed to the state having jurisdiction of the crime." In the several states there

are statutory provisions or established usages regulating the procedure in such cases. They vary in some respects, but the process is substantially as follows everywhere: 1. The alleged fugitive is charged with the crime in the state from which he flies, and sufficient evidence of his probable guilt is offered to the executive. 2. That executive gives to the applicant a formal requisition (reciting generally the facts of the case) upon the executive of the state to which he has fled. 3. This last executive then examines into the case, usually by the prosecuting officer of the state, as far as he deems necessary, and if he sees no sufficient reason to the contrary, issues his warrant to some proper officer. 4. Thereupon this officer takes possession of the fugitive, and is protected in carrying him to the state from which the requisition issues, and there surrendering him to the proper officer. 5. It has been held that if the executive which issues the warrant becomes satisfied that it should not have been issued, it may withdraw it and liberate the fugitive at any time before he passes beyond the limits of the state. The extradition of the fugitive from service is provided for, not by state statutes, but by acts of congress. They provide very summary processes, as entirely ministerial and as little judicial as such processes can be, in the state to which the fugitive slave has fled, resting the whole procedure upon a previous judicial investigation at home, which has been held to be conclusive as to the service due and the escape, and to leave for trial in the foreign state only the question of personal identity. If the fugitive slave be surrendered to the claimant, and if the claimant takes him home, he may there have all the opportunity which the general law gives him of trying the question whether he is bound to service. This statute and process have been held to be applicable to fugitive apprentices.

FUGUE (Lat. fuga, flight), a species of musical composition in which one voice or part seems to be perpetually flying away from another, whence the name. The principal musical thought of the piece, or the subject, having been performed by one voice or part, is taken up by another, and so on with all the voices or parts, each commencing after the others, and all performing together. The result is an endless pursuit and flight of the same theme by the different parts. Fugues are simple, double, or counter, the latter being much the most complicated, and afford a wide field for invention, of which the older composers frequently took advantage.

FULDA, a S. E. province of Hesse-Cassel, bounded E., S., and W. by Weimar, Bavaria, and Hesse-Darmstadt; area, 860 sq. m.; pop. in 1854, 138,685.-FULDA, the capital of the province, is situated on a river of the same name, here crossed by 3 bridges, 56 m. N. E. from Frankfort-on-the-Main; pop. 9,570. It contains an electoral palace and gardens, formerly the residence of the prince-bishops, 11 churches, 2 convents, an ecclesiastical seminary, and a num

ber of schools. The cathedral is a fine modern building, the 4th which has stood on this site. Of the ancient church it retains only a crypt, in which is the sarcophagus of St. Boniface. Fulda has also a library of 50,000 volumes, manufactories of cotton, linen, and woollen goods, &c., and trade in corn and cattle.

FULGURITE (Lat. fulgur, lightning), sand vitrified into a slender tube, which is sometimes of great length, found on sandy beaches and plains, penetrating in some instances 50 feet or more beneath the surface, and dividing into several branches. Beudant describes fulgurites under the mineral species quartz, by the name of quartz tubuleux, and ascribes their origin to a stroke of lightning. Their diameter varies from

of an inch to 3 inches, and the thickness of the wall of the tube from of an inch to 1 inch. Their inner surface is vitrified; the outer is composed of grains of sand cemented together. M. Fiedler exhibited one to the French academy of sciences in 1843, which he excavated from a point in a vineyard which had just been struck by lightning. Dufrénoy (Mineralogie, vol. ii., p. 161) speaks of one he saw in possession of M. Ficter, which was more than 10 metres long, and presented beside many ramifications. An account of a remarkable one dug up at Rome, N. Y., was published in the "American Journal of Science" (vol. xiv. p. 220, 1843). M. Hachette, together with Messrs. Savart and Beudant, succeeded in producing some artificially, making use of a strong electrical battery, and causing the charge to pass through a quantity of pounded glass placed in a hole in a brick. One was an inch in length, and from

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to of an inch in diameter outside-inside only of an inch. With a little chloride of sodium mixed with the glass, a tube was obtained of uniform diameter 14 inches long.

FULLER, ANDREW, an English Baptist theologian, born in Wicken, Cambridgeshire, Feb. 6, 1754, died in Kettering, Northamptonshire, May 7, 1815. Till the age of 20 he was chiefly engaged in husbandry; but having united himself to the Baptist church he became a preacher of that denomination, and was settled first at Soham in 1775, and afterward at Kettering in 1783. In 1784 he published a treatise entitled "The Gospel Worthy of all Acceptation," a work of great ability, which excited much controversy, and is believed to have materially modified the prevailing doctrinal views of the denomination to which he belonged. In 1799 he composed his "Dialogues and Letters" (published collectively in 1806). In 1792 he took an active part with Carey and others in establishing the Baptist missionary society, and was appointed its first secretary; and from that time till the close of his life he was constantly engaged in the most important and arduous labors for its prosperity, and the extension and success of its missions. In 1794 he published "The Calvinistic and Socinian Systems, examined and compared as to their Moral Tendency;" in reply to which Dr. Joshua Toulmin wrote "The

Practical Efficacy of the Unitarian Doctrine considered," and Fuller rejoined in "Socinianism Indefensible, on the ground of its Moral Tendency" (1797). He was the author of a great number of other treatises, sermons, &c., all of which bear the marks of an acute and powerful mind. His "Complete Works" were published in 8 vols. 8vo. (London, 1824), and in 1 vol. imperial 8vo., with a memoir by his son (1852). They have been reprinted in the United States with a memoir by the Rev. Joseph Belcher (3 vols. 8vo., Philadelphia), and in other editions. The degree of D.D. was conferred on Mr. Fuller by Yale college, and also by the college of New Jersey, but he declined receiving it as unscriptural and incompatible with the simplicity of the Christian character. From his sagacity and strong common sense, his almost instinctive knowledge of the human heart, and the native vigor and practical character of his mind, he has been called "the Franklin of theology."

FULLER, MARGARET. See OSSOLI, MARGARET FULLER.

FULLER, RICHARD, D.D., an American clergyman, born in Beaufort, S. C., in 1808. He was graduated at Harvard college in 1824, subsequently studied law, and before his 21st year was admitted to the bar of South Carolina. He almost immediately entered upon a large and lucrative practice, and was on the road to professional eminence when he was prostrated by a fit of sickness. On his recovery he became a member of the Episcopal church, afterward joined the Baptist denomination, and, renouncing his profession, studied for the ministry. He was ordained in 1833, and took charge of the Beaufort Baptist church, where his preaching and pastoral offices were attended with beneficial results. In 1847 he assumed the charge of the 7th Baptist church in Baltimore, one of the largest in the city, with which he still remains connected. Among Dr. Fuller's published writings are: "Correspondence with Bishop England concerning the Roman Chancery:" "Correspondence with Dr. Wayland on Domestic Slavery;" "Sermons," and "Letters."

FULLER, THOMAS, one of the wittiest and most peculiar and original of English authors, born in Aldwinckle, Northamptonshire, in June, 1608, died Aug. 15, 1661. He was carefully educated by his father, the rector of St. Peter's in his native village, till in his 13th year he was sent to Queen's college, Cambridge. He won the highest university honors, and received the degree of bachelor in 1625, of master in 1628, a fellowship in Sidney Sussex college in 1631, and about the same time the living of St. Benet's, Cambridge, where he exhibited great eloquence as a preacher. He was also made a prebendary of Salisbury. His first publication was a poem entitled "David's hainous Sinne, heartie Repentance, heavie Punishment" (London, 1631). He was soon after presented to the rectory of Broad Windsor, Dorsetshire, where he prosecuted several

works that he had planned at Cambridge. After 7 years he removed to London, where his fame for pulpit eloquence secured for him the lectureship of the Savoy, and he published his "Historie of the Holy Warre" (Cambridge, 1639; 5th ed., 1651), which greatly extended his reputation. In 1640 he was member of the convocation assembled in Henry VII.'s chapel, Westminster, to make canons for the better government of the church, and has given an interesting account of its proceedings in his "Church History." On the outbreak of the civil war he remained in London after the departure of the king, laboring to mitigate the violent feelings that were dividing the people into two hostile parties; and in 1643, on the anniversary of the accession of Charles, he preached a sermon in Westminster abbey of so loyal a spirit as to give great offence to the parliamentarians. He soon after declined taking the oath to parliament, and joined the king at Oxford, who was curious concerning his extraordinary abili ties, and immediately invited him to preach before him; but his calm moderation pleased the royalists as little as it did their opponents. He resided at Oxford in Lincoln college, but sentence of sequestration was pronounced against him, and he lost his books and manuscripts. Two royalist noblemen gave him the remains of their private libraries that had escaped the ravages of war, and he at length identified himself with the royal cause by seeking a chaplaincy in the army under Sir Ralph Hopton. He improved the leisure which this position gave him, and the facilities presented by the marches and countermarches through the country, in collecting by an extensive correspondence and personal inquiries the materials for his "Worthies of England." He was besieged at Basing House in 1644 with a small party of royalists, but animated the garrison to so vigorous a defence that the parliamentary commander was obliged to retire with considerable loss. Taking refuge in Exeter on the defeat of Hopton in 1645, he preached constantly to the citizens till its surrender in April, 1646, and published there his "Good Thoughts in Bad Times" (1645). His "Good Thoughts in Worse Times" appeared in 1646, after his return to London, and he published a new edition with the "Second Century of Good Thoughts in Bad Times" (1647); in 1660 he completed the series with "Mixt Contemplations in Better Times." He continued to preach and to publish tracts and sermons, notwithstanding "it had been the pleasure of the present authority to make him mute," and notwithstanding Cromwell's prohibition of all persons from preaching or teaching schools who had been adherents of the late king. In 1648 he became rector of Waltham abbey in Essex, and in 1658 chaplain to Lord Berkeley and rector of Cranford. Shortly before the restoration he was reinstated in his lectureship at the Savoy, and after that event was chosen chaplain extraordinary to the king, and regained the prebend of Salisbury.

A

bishopric was expected for him, when he met his death by a fever. He was buried in his church at Cranford, in the chancel of which his monument still remains. His "Holy and Profane State, a collection of Characters, Moral Essays, and Lives, Ancient, Foreign, and Domestic" (Cambridge, 1642; 4th ed. 1663), proposing examples for our imitation and abhorrence, is one of his best productions, and fully exhibits his sagacity of thought and pithiness of style. His "Church History of Britain, from the Birth of Jesus Christ until the year MDCXLVIII." (London, 1655), though abounding in jokes, quibbles, dedications, anecdotes, and curious and irrelevant learning, is one of the most remarkable works in the language for wit, piety, pathos, and imagination, and contains many interesting memorials, the result of long, active, and extended research. The "History of the Worthies of England," a collection of eccentric biographies, published posthumously (London, 1662), has been more generally read than any other of his works, and abounds in gossip, admirably told stories, curious details, and witty and excellent reflections. The men whose lives are recorded are arranged according to their native counties, of which he mentions the natural productions, herbs, medicinal waters, curiosities, local proverbs, manufactures, and buildings. Of his minor productions, the principal are the "Appeal of Injured Innocence" (London, 1659), a defence of his "Church History" (with which it is sometimes bound) against Heylin, and treat ing almost every subject within the range of human disquisition; the "Pisgah-Sight of Palestine" (London, 1650); and "Andronicus, or the Unfortunate Politician" (London, 1646). The style of all his writings is extremely quaint and idiomatic, in short and simple sentences, and singularly free from the learned pedantry of his time. "Next to Shakespeare," says Coleridge, "I am not certain whether Thomas Fuller, beyond all other writers, does not excite in me the sense and emulation of the marvellous; the degree in which any given faculty, or combination of faculties, is possessed and manifested, so far surpassing what we would have thought possible in a single mind, as to give one's admiration the flavor and quality of wonder. Fuller was incomparably the most sensible, the least prejudiced great man, in an age that boasted of a galaxy of great men. In all his numerous volumes on so many different subjects, it is scarcely too much to say that you will hardly find a page in which some one sentence out of every three does not deserve to be quoted by itself as a motto or as a maxim." His memory was so remarkable, that he could repeat a sermon verbatim after hearing it once, and 500 unrelated words of different languages after hearing them twice. His lively and learned conversation made his company much courted, and he would listen for hours to the prattle of old women in order to catch snatches of local history and tradition and proverbial wisdom.

FULLERS' EARTH, an unctuous sort of clay,

useful in fulling cloth, from its property, common to aluminous earths, of absorbing oil and grease. That variety of clay is preferred which falls to pieces when put in water, making a slight crackling sound. Its colors are various shades of yellowish, greenish, bluish, brown, and gray; lustre dull, but appears greasy when rubbed. Composition as given by Dr. Ure: silica 53, alumina 10, peroxide of iron 9.75, magnesia 1.25, lime 0.5, water 24, potash a trace. Dr. Thomson found silica 44, alumina 23.06, protoxide of iron 2, magnesia 2, lime 4.08, water 24.95. It is not now esteemed of so much value as formerly, soap having taken its place. In England it used to be so highly valued that its exportation was prohibited. It was carried in large quantities from the counties of Surrey and Buckingham, and then sold to be transported to the north or west of England. When used, it was first dried by the sun or by fire, and then thrown into cold water. The powder thus formed was sorted by washing into coarse and fine qualities, the former of which were applied to inferior cloths, the latter to the finer goods.

FULLERTON, LADY GEORGIANA CHARLOTTE, an English authoress, born Sept. 23, 1812. She is the daughter of the 1st earl of Granville, and was married in 1833 to Capt. Alexander George Fullerton. Her first publication, a novel entitled "Ellen Middleton," appeared in 1844, and was succeeded within a few years by "Grantley Manor."

Both works exhibit constructive skill and an analysis of characterof no mean order. "Lady Bird," published in 1852, after the conversion of the authoress to the Roman Catholic church, is one of her most imaginative works.

FULLING, also called MILLING, the operation of removing greasy matters from woollen goods, and of giving to them a more compact texture by causing the fibres to entangle themselves more closely together, as in the process of felting. Fulling mills are ancient inventions, the process probably having been applied to the first woven fabrics, as felting must already have been then known. Cloths brought to the fulling mills contain the oil which was applied to the fibre in weaving. The first process to which they are subjected is called scouring or braying. This is effected by placing the rolls in troughs so arranged that they can retain the detergent liquid, as, first, stale urine and hogs' dung, subsequently urine alone, and again fullers' earth and water, while heavy oaken mallets or pounders slide down with force into one end of the troughs and mash and roll over the folds of cloth. The pounders are lifted by revolving cams, and kept in action for hours together, one to each trough. The oil is absorbed by the clay, and both are washed off by the water. The fulling is properly a second process performed in the same machines with the use of soap applied liberally in solution. The stampers are better made of polished iron, and the operation is facilitated with economy of soap by keeping the trough filled with hot steam. Cloth is also fulled in what is called the fulling machine with

out stamping, the cloth being pushed in a succession of folds through a low trough, the top of which is made by weights to press upon these folds and resist their progress through. The soap is washed out after the fulling, and the nap is raised by teazling. To properly full a piece of ordinary broadcloth it has been customary to allow from 60 to 65 hours, and 11 lbs. of soap; the shrinkage in width is from 12 quarters to 7, and in length from 54 yards to 40. A piece of Venetian broadcloth 54 yards shrank to 45 yards in length, and from 7 quarters 3 nails to 6 quarters 2 nails in width, and required 12 hours and from 6 to 7 lbs. of soap.

FULMINATES (Lat. fulmen, a thunderbolt), salts of fulminic acid and some base, as gold, platinum, silver, and mercury, all of which possess the property of exploding with more or less violence. The last two only are applied to any practical purpose. Fulminating mercury (represented by the formula 2Hg O, Cy2 O2) is the compound used in the manufacture of percussion caps. It is prepared, as recommended by Dr. Ure, by dissolving at a moderate heat 1 ounce weight of mercury in 74 fluid ounces of nitric acid of specific gravity 1.4, turning this into 10 fluid ounces of alcohol of specific gravity .83, the temperature of the acid and mercury being about 130° F. It is well to employ for dissolving the mercury a glass retort furnished with a receiver of glass, which is kept cool by a current of water. The acid vapors which are condensed in this should be returned to the retort. When the mercury is dissolved, the solution should be slowly introduced into the matrass containing the alcohol, the capacity of which should be at least 6 times that of the liquids. Bubbles of gas soon begin to escape from the bottom of the mixture, and the whole is soon thrown into a rapidly bubbling condition. It becomes frothy and white; highly combustible vapors escape, which should be allowed to pass off into the air without coming in contact with flame or any heated surface. These vapors consist of various products of the oxidation of the alcohol, as aldehyde, acetic acid, formic acid, and nitrous, acetic, and formic ethers. They may be condensed and converted to use in other operations; but any obstruction thus presented to their free escape is regarded as injuriously affecting the main object of the operation. A considerable quantity of them were condensed by Mr. Samuel Guthrie of Sackett's Harbor, N. Y., whose experiments will be noticed hereafter. The effervescence ceasing, the contents of the matrass are turned upon a double filter of paper, and thoroughly washed with pure cold water, till the washings cease to redden litmus paper. When quite drained, the filter is removed from the funnel, and spread open with its contents upon a plate of copper or stone ware, raised by steam or hot water to the temperature of 212° F. It is thus dried, and may then be put away in paper parcels of 100 grains each, which are to be kept protected from moisture. The salt when well prepared is

in small sparkling crystals of brownish gray color, which moistened with water upon a slip of paper appear transparent. They dissolve in 130 times their weight of boiling water, leaving no residuum if pure. As the water cools, the fulminate reappears in pearly spangles. Fulminate of mercury explodes at a heat somewhat below 370° F., or by being struck smartly between two hard metallic surfaces. Rubbing it between two wooden surfaces will produce the same effect. When moistened with 5 per cent. of water, the portion struck may explode without communicating the effect to the portions in contact. Fulminate of mercury may be fired in contact with gunpowder without igniting this, even when covered loosely with it; but when the powder is packed in a tube and the fulminate in a percussion cap is exploded in contact with it, the gunpowder is more instantaneously ignited throughout than by any other mode of firing. The projectile effect of 10 parts as formerly fired is thus obtained from 8 parts.In the manufacture of percussion caps the French use 1 kilogramme cf mercury to produce 11 kilogrammes of fulminate, which is sufficient for 40,000 caps. They grind the mercurial salt with 30 per cent. of water upon a marble table with a wooden muller, mixing 6 parts of gunpowder with 10 of fulminate. This when dried forms the composition which is introduced into the caps-about 1 grain to 4 caps. Dr. Ure recommends a solution of mastic in spirits of turpentine as the fittest medium for attaching the fulminate to the bottoms of the caps. Instead of using the fulminate alone, or with gunpowder, as practised by the French, the English mix with every 3 parts of it 5 parts of chlorate of potash, 1 part of sulphur, and 1 of powdered glass. Nitre is also recommended in the proportion of of the fulminate, mixed with it when it contains 20 per cent. of water. Mr. Samuel Guthrie of Sackett's Harbor, N. Y., who performed a series of practical experiments on a large scale upon these compounds, found that a most efficient preparation was made by mixing 1 part of oxide of tin with 3 parts of fulminating mercury, and grinding them together with a stiff solution of starch. The starch gave cohesiveness to the grain without injuring its explosive qualities. Mr. Guthrie's experiments are recorded in the "American Journal of Science" for Jan. 1832. They are highly interesting for their practical character and applications, and the extreme hazard which attended them. It was in the course of these experiments that Mr. Guthrie made the discovery of chloroform, also discovered about the same time in France and Germany. The original fulminating powder, patented by the Rev. Mr. Forsyth in 1807, consisted only of chlorate of potash, sulphur, and charcoal. In the manufacture of percussion caps a drop of gum is introduced into the bottom of each one, and the fulminating powder is dropped in upon this. A coating of varnish is sometimes afterward applied to protect them from moisture. It was represented by an exhibitor at the Lon

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