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The path marked out by Lessing was further pursued by Kant (1724-1804), who went into a careful investigation of the faculty of understanding, and arrived at the conclusion that we cannot know things in themselves, and things above the reach of the senses, but that the only thing certain in itself is the moral law, which conducts us to a practical faith in God and immortality. Through him the terms rationalist (one who declares natural religion alone to be morally necessary, though he may admit revelation), naturalist (one who denies the reality of a supranatural divine revelation), and supranaturalist (one who considers the belief in revelation a necessary element in religion) came into use, and rationalism and supranaturalism became the principal division of theological schools. The principles of the Kantian philosophy were introduced into theology especially by Staudlin and Ammon. The first rationalistic system of dogmatic theology was published by Henke, and the most complete and most celebrated (Institutiones Theologia Dogmatica, 1813) by Wegscheider (1771-1849); beside whom Paulus of Heidelberg (died 1851), the author of a Commentary on the New Testament" and of a "Life of Jesus," and Röhr of Weimar (died 1848), author of "Letters on Rationalism," were considered the ablest rationalistic theologians. The foremost representatives of the supranaturalist theology were Storr (died 1805), Knapp, Hahn ("Manual of the Christian Doctrine"), and Steudel. A medium between rationalism and supranaturalism was first attempted by Reinhard, the great German pulpit orator (died 1812), from which time rationalism made decided advances toward the Christian revelation, and supranaturalism acknowledged the possibility and necessity of a reconciliation with science. The most prominent representatives of this mediating theology are Schott (died 1835) and Bretschneider (died 1846). An academic disputation at Leipsic in 1827, and the "Evangelical Church Gazette" of Hengstenberg in 1830, demanded the expulsion of rationalism from the church; against which, however, even men like Neander, Ullmann, and others, protested as an encroachment on the liberty of scientific investigation. As Kant had declared the ideas of God, liberty, and immortality indemonstrable by pure reason, but admitted them as postulates of practical reason, another philosophy, the philosophy of faith (Glaubensphilosophie), sought to prove the Kantian postulates theoretically, by attributing to man an immediate consciousness of God, or an innate faith. This idea was the basis of the theological views of Hamann, the "Magus of the North" (died 1788), and of Herder (died 1803), who, as has been said, mixed it with the foam of Spinozism; and it was developed as a philosophical system by Jacobi (died 1819). The influence of the latter on theology was small, for he limited himself to a philosophical proof of the idea of a living God, did not explain his views of the Christian revelation, and

rejected a part of the positive doctrines of Christianity as superstition. J. F. Fries (died 1843) attempted a mediation between Kant and Jacobi by a philosophy of faith and presentiment. He found among the theologians an adherent of influence in De Wette (died 1849), who explained religion as an immediate inner revelation of God in sentiment and faith, and dogma as its symbolic form of expression and development.-Not a mere approximation or partial mediation between rationalism and supranaturalism, but a merging of the two into an entirely new system which was to acknowledge the claims of both, was the task which Schleiermacher (died 1834) proposed to himself. Like the pietists, he started from the principle that a right knowledge of Christianity necessarily presupposes on the part of the subject a personal religious experience. He found the proper source of all Christian life and knowledge in the pious sentiment or Christian consciousness, in which the subject comprehends itself both in the totality of its being, as also in its necessary connection with the human race, and in its being determined by the Christian principle reigning in the race. In this consciousness it becomes assured of the reality of a new, divine, world-redeeming principle of life, which reveals itself in Christianity, and without which the restoration of the right relation of individuals as well as the human race to God is not possible. Revelation is according to him not an external law, claiming submission from the subjective reason; but nothing more is demanded from the latter than to recognize itself as being determined by the Christian principle, and more and more to penetrate itself with it. The external opposition of revelation and reason is supplanted by the closest interpenetration of the two, allowing the greatest freedom with regard to such questions as do not affect the proper sphere of revelation. The movement in the theological world called forth by this system was extraordinary, and can be compared in intensity only with the reformation of the 16th century. Not only did several different theological schools spring from it, but even the schools opposed to it felt its influence. Most of the adherents of Schleiermacher defended from his standpoint all the essential doctrines of biblical orthodoxy; thus Neander ("Church History"), Ullmann ("Sinlessness of Jesus," and "Essence of Christianity"), Lücke, Umbreit, and Olshausen (commentaries), Hundeshagen, &c. Others attempted a middle course between the system of Schleiermacher and those of the German Protestant churches, as Twesten ("Dogmatics") Nitzsch ("System of the Christian Doctrine"), and J. Müller ("Christian Doctrine of Sin"). A third school, however, rejected these two as deviations from the true spirit of Schleiermacher, and claimed the fullest independence of theological investigation with regard to the doctrines both of the biblical and the church theologies. To this school belong A. Schweizer (" Dogmatics of the

Evangelical Reformed Church") and Baumgarten-Crusius ("Dogmatics").-The most recent influence of lasting importance in the development of German theology came from the philosophy of the absolute, which was first introduced by Schelling (1775-1854), but completed as a system by Hegel (1770-1831). In the view of this philosophy, the popular religions which have existed in the world have been the several points by which the divine self-consciousness has developed itself. The essence of religion consists in the relation of man to God. Christianity is called the absolute religion, the realization of the idea of religion, because it presents the unity of the divine and the human, God becoming man, and man becoming conscious of his divine origin and his reconciliation with God. The idea of revelation ceases to be something external, particular, miraculous, and once occurring, and becomes something internal, universal, necessary, and eternal. After the death of Hegel his school became divided into those who used an orthodox and those who used a heterodox mode of expression, or into the right and left wings. The former, full of enthusiasm, proclaimed the identity between the new speculative philosophy and the orthodox dogma, the reconcilation between faith and knowledge. Among its numerous representatives, Daub ("Dogmatics"), Marheineke (“Outlines of Christian Dogmatics"), Rosenkranz ("Cyclopædia of Theological Sciences"), Göschel, Erdmann, and Conradi, were prominent. The last named contended that it was consistently developing the fundamental idea of the master when it proclaimed that religion, carried to its perfection by reason, is only a god worshipping himself, and that a god-man is one who never had an existence as an individual upon earth. From the latter school (the young Hegelians) proceeded D. F. Strauss, who in his "Life of Jesus" (1835) declared the biblical account of the life of Jesus a myth, and in his "Christian Doctrine in its Historic Development" (1840) attacked even the belief in the personality of God and the immortality of the human soul. L. Feuerbach (“ Essence of Christianity," 1841) went even beyond Strauss, to the extreme limit of nihilism; he rejected religion itself as a dream and illusion, from which when man awakes he finds only himself. Under the influence of both Schleiermacher and Hegel, F. Ch. Baur of Tübingen introduced the philosophy of religion as a Christian science into the history of Christian doctrines, and in monographs on the history of the doctrine of the Trinity and of reconciliation he sought to comprehend the historic development of the dogma as the dialectic process of the idea itself, and as the development of the undeveloped doctrine of the Bible into a more adequate unity of contents and form. Rejecting the authenticity of most of the books of the New Testament, and ascribing to them a later origin, he endeavored by numerous writings to fill up the vacuum thus left in the history of Christ

and earlier Christianity; in which endeavors he was seconded by a considerable number of young scholars (the Tübingen school), among whom Schwegler ("History of Montanism" and "Post-apostolic Age") and Zeller ("Investigations on the Acts") were the most prominent. The critical works of the Tübingen school called forth an immense number of opponents, who partly modified the new assertions, partly vindicated the old-established views of the churches, but all of whom agreed that by the numerous works thus called forth on both sides a flood of light had been shed on many important events of primitive Christianity. The most important controversial essays against the Tübingen school were those of Thiersch ("Church in the Apostolic Age"), Dorner ("Doctrine of the Person of Christ"), Schaff, ("Apostolic Age"), Bleek, (“Contributions to the Criticism on the Gospels"), Hase ("On the Tübingen School"), Ewald ("Annals of Biblical Science," "The First Three Gospels," and "History of Christ and his Times").

The impulse given to German theology by the various systems of speculative philosophy was a general one, and not confined to the schools that revered Schleiermacher and Hegel as their masters. Many supranaturalists as well as rationalists were greatly influenced by it, though with regard to the systems of Schleiermacher and Hegel they sustained either an eclectic or an independent relation. Thus especially Liebner, Lange, and Martensen, each the author of a system of dogmatics, were called the epigoni of speculative theology; the ingenious R. Rothe, whose "Christian Ethics" has been called the most important theological work of Germany since the publication of the "Dogmatics" of Schleiermacher, designated himself as a theosophist; Hase, the church historian, is a prominent representative of speculative rationalism. Speculative theology itself is still in a course of active development. Schelling's "Philosophy of Mythology and Revelation" (the exposition of his second philosophic system, published only after his death) aimed at a fuller reconciliation between speculative theology and the Christian revelation, and to prove the absolute universality of the Christian principles; while on the other hand T. H. Fichte ("Speculative The ology"), C. Ph. Fischer (" Idea of the Deity"), Weisse ("Idea of the Deity"), Wirth ("Speculative Idea of the Deity"), and others, established, in opposition to the pantheistic tendencies of Hegel, the system of speculative theism (Panentheism), in which they hope to bring about a reconciliation between deism and pantheism.— In opposition to the rationalistic and speculative theology, as well as to the vague supranaturalism of the 18th century, there developed itself at the beginning of the present century a school which demanded a restoration of the original theology of the Reformed churches, and a return to the strict orthodoxy of the symbolical books. One of the first manifestations of this school was the publication of the

the hero of the "Annals" of Tacitus, and is one of the noblest characters in the history of the Roman empire. He had reputation also as an orator and poet, but of several works which he composed there remains only a Latin translation of the Phænomena of Aratus, which is superior to Cicero's translation of the same work.

GERMANY (Germ. Deutschland; Fr. Alle magne), the name given to a large portion of central Europe, composed of numerous independent states, and parts of states, united together by a common league, called the Germanic confederation, embracing the river system of the Elbe and Oder, and large portions of the systems of the Rhine, Danube, and Vistula. It extends from the southern point of the Istrian peninsula on the Adriatic (lat. 44° 50' N.), over 10 degrees 5 minutes of latitude, to the lake of Zarnovitz on the boundary of Pomerania and western Prussia, and over 13 degrees 40 minutes of longitude from the westernmost point of the duchy of Limburg, long. 5° 37' 21" E., to the eastern boundary of Silesia, long. 19° 17' 21" E. The boundary line marked off by these extreme points has a length of about 4,600 miles, and encloses an area of about 244,000 sq. m. (The area of 280,000 sq. m., given by some authorities, includes the eastern provinces of Prussia lying beyond the limits of the German confederation.) The natural boundaries are, on the N., the German ocean (North sea), the Eider river, and the Baltic sea; on the E., the water-shed of the Oder and Vistula rivers, and the lesser Carpathians; on the S., the Alpine system and the Adriatic; on the W., the water-shed of the Rhine, the Moselle, and the Meuse. Politically Germany is bounded N. by Denmark; E. by Prussian, Russian, and Austrian Poland, Hungary, and Croatia; S. by Italy and Switzerland; W. by France, Belgium, and Holland. Stretching from the lofty summits of the Alps to the low beaches of the Baltic, from the picturesque and diversified countries of western Europe to the monotonous steppes of the east, Germany encloses a rich variety of mountainous regions, terraced country, table-lands, and fertile plains. Though mainly an inland country, it is not devoid of a coast configuration which, if less favorable to a large development of maritime commerce, furnishes good outlets to its numerous navigable rivers. Two river systems, tributary to the North sea and the Black sea, meet in Germany, rendering it the centre of the interior commerce of the European continent. Its climate unites the different characteristics of the surrounding countries, holding a mean between the extreme heat of the south and the extreme cold of northern Europe, between the excessive moisture of the western coast countries and the dryness of the eastern plains. Since the time when Germany ceased to be a conquering nation, the preservation of its political status has always been considered the principal element of the balance of power in Europe. In that respect it is the keystone of the political

system of Europe. Owing to its important central position, Germany has almost invariably become the theatre of all great European wars, no matter where or for what cause begun. Beside, its boundaries, with the exception of the southern, are but poorly protected. On the W. its former principal defensive positions against France, viz., the Netherlands, Alsace, and Switzerland, have been lost. On the central portion of the Rhine France cuts deeply, almost at a right angle, into Germany, and the valleys of the Main and Kinzig rivers form an easy road for a French invading army. Hence 6 strong fortresses, Mentz, Coblentz, Luxemburg, Saarlouis, Landau, and Germersheim, cluster there as bulwarks against French invasion, while a similar number of equally strong fortresses on the French side would appear to be intended more for aggression than defence. On the S. E. Germany is protected by the maze of the projecting spurs of the Alpine system and the mountainous character of Bohemia. The weakest point of Germany is the E. and N. E. frontier toward Russia. There the Russian territory enters like a wedge into the side of Germany, and the three fortresses of Posen, Thorn, and Königsberg could scarcely offer any successful resistance to an invading army from Russia. Nevertheless the defensive military power of united Germany would be so strong as to deter all attempts at conquest, and it is not only the boast of the Germans, but also believed by their neighbors, that Germany as a united nation would be fully able to cope with both France and Russia simultaneously. But Germany as a unit has always been a chimera. To the diversified physiognomy of its vast territory corresponds a political division scarcely less variegated. It has been said by an eminent German statesman that Germany is not a nation, but merely a geographical designation. Indeed, the tie connecting the different members of its political body is so weak as to be of very little utility. Practically, Germany appears only as a vast conglomerate of a multitude of petty states, half a dozen states of the second or third rank, and two great European powers, both of which have large possessions beyond the limits of Germany proper. Germany has never been a centralized nation, and it is a significant fact that its precise centre is cut up into the pettiest and weakest principalities. Even during the middle ages, when Germany was at the zenith of its power, in fact the ruling nation of Europe, political power always rested with the limbs, not with the main body of the empire. Since the time of the reformation, Germany has almost incessantly been rent by a dualism deeply rooted in the national and individual peculiarities of the northern and southern sections. Northern Germany, grouped around Prussia, is the representative of the highest development of mental culture, and the diversification of human labor; while southern Germany has been slow in the development of intellectual culture, more prone to conquest by force of arms, and

less so to that higher form of conquest which consists in the subjection of nature to the wants of mankind and the fullest development of natural resources. The population of Germany, according to the latest complete census (Dec. 1855), was 43,935,500, or 180 to the square mile, showing an increase within the 12 years preceding of 0.6 per cent. per annum (in 1843, 41,054,702). The density of population was, in 1801, 112 to the square mile; in 1816, 125; in 1837, 140; and in 1843, 168. The 4 free cities excepted, the greatest density of population prevails in the kingdom of Saxony (348 to the square mile), the grand duchy of Hesse (264), and the duchy of Saxe-Altenburg (256). In the following states the density of population exceeds the average: Hesse-Cassel, Würtemberg, Baden, the Prussian provinces belonging to the German confederation, Luxemburg, Nassau, Brunswick, Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, Schwarzburg, Reuss, Lippe, Hesse-Homburg, Saxe-Weimar. The average density of the German provinces of Austria is 170, of Bavaria 154, and of all the other states less than 140 (Hanover 122, the lowest average). The proportion of the inhabitants of cities to the rural population is in the general average as 1 to 3; in Prussia as 2 to 5, in Saxony as 1 to 2. The number of large cities is, proportionately to the population, larger in Germany than in any other country, Great Britain, Belgium, and Holland only excepted. There are 2 cities with over 400,000 inhabitants each (Vienna, 473,000, and Berlin, 426,602, not counting the garrisons); 6 with more than 100,000 and less than 150,000 inhabitants (Breslau, Prague, Munich, Hamburg, Dresden, Cologne); 12 with 50,000 to 100,000 inhabitants (Leipsic, Frankfort-on-the-Main, Bremen, Magdeburg, Stettin, Aix la Chapelle, Trieste, Brünn, Grätz, Nuremberg, Stuttgart, and Hanover); over 100 cities with from 10,000 to 50,000; about 200 with from 5,000 to 10,000; nearly 2,000 with less than 5,000 inhabitants; about 3,000 boroughs and 112,000 villages. Fourfifths (80.3 per cent.) of the population of Germany belong to the German race; the remaining fifth, belonging principally to the Slavic race, is mainly confined to the Austrian and eastern Prussian provinces. If these are left out of account, full 981 per cent. of the German people belong to the same Teutonic stock. The entire number of Slavi in Germany is a little over 7,000,000, or 16.75 per cent., of which number there are only about 50,000 outside of Prussia and Austria. The number of Jews is about 440,000, or 1 per cent. of the total population. They are very unequally distributed. While scarcely any reside in Upper Austria, Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, and Tyrol, and in the Prussian province of Saxony they are only, and in Saxony per cent., they are 3 per cent. of the population of Hamburg, Frankfort, and Hesse. The Romanic population in Tyrol and Illyria number about 400,000, the Flemings in Rhenish Prussia and Luxemburg about 200,000, Greeks (in Austria) some 3,000, gypsies over

1,000, principally in Austria. The Germans are usually classified into low Germans and high Germans, or northerners and southerners. The dividing line may be drawn from lat. 50° 30′ N. in western Germany to lat. 52° 30′ N. on the eastern frontier, or along the course of the Sieg (a tributary of the Rhine) to the southern slope of the Hartz mountains, crossing the Elbe near its confluence with the Saale, then a little to the northward along the southern banks of the Havel and of the Warthe. In physical development the Germans stand superior to either the Latin or the Slavic race. Their frame and their muscular development are strong, almost heavy. Among the lower classes of the rural and laboring population stoutness and strength often approach to clumsiness, which is heightened sometimes by a servile bearing, and a certain uneasiness and want of self-reliance. As a general thing the northerners are taller and of better shaped features and limbs than the southerners. The blonde complexion prevails only in the north; in central and southern Germany light or dark brown is more frequently found. In power of endurance the Germans are surpassed by the Slavic race, in agility by the Latin. The prominent features of the German national character are honesty, faithfulness, valor, thoughtfulness, perseverance, and industry. The German is patient, conservative, inoffensive, and hence always ready to allow himself to be deceived by vain promises of his rulers. He favors a moderate enjoyment of the pleasures of social life, but sometimes, or it should rather be said in some portions of Germany, this is carried to excess, and the complaint has been heard that popular movements in favor of liberty have unfortunately been drowned in the social cup. Of a scientific turn of mind, the Germans have largely promoted the progress of human knowledge. În point of fact, there is scarcely a single branch of science in which Germans have not excelled. Again, in music, painting, and sculpture they occupy one of the highest ranks among nations. The German artisan is highly valued for his dexterity and steadiness. Yet there is one element almost entirely wanting in the German character, viz., a strong national feeling. The German rather boasts of being a cosmopolitan, while in fact his cosmopolitism would appear to be only a confession of weakness and pliability. The German differs from the natives of all other European and American countries in this respect, that he is in many instances more favorably inclined toward other countries than his own. If proverbs are indicative of the sentiments of the people, it is hardly creditable to the patriotism of the Germans that they are wont to call those things which they deem of little value, "things that have not come from afar." Some German authors contend that these peculiar traits of the national character are merely fruits of the political condition of the country; but they result more probably from an abstract idealism with which the majority of Germans would seem to