assault. This great city was pillaged and consumed in a month by fire. Giving the command in the East to his son Tutshee, he now turned his sword to the West, crushed some revolted tribes and their allies, and took a bloody revenge for the murder of his ambassadors on Mohammed, sultan of Khovaresmia (now Khiva). An army of 400,000 men and the mighty cities of Bokhara, Samarkand, and others, opposed him in vain; the Mongols conquered and devastated the whole country; the cities were destroyed, and with them immense treasures of eastern science and art; and numberless inhabitants were slaughtered or carried away as slaves. Another Mongol army marched against Kaptshak, and took Derbend on the shore of the Caspian sea; another reduced Iran and Astrakhan, and, after a bloody battle on the Kalka, southern Russia; another continued the conquest of China and subdued Corea. The countries N. W. of India were also conquered, and an expedition against that country was begun. In this he is said to have shared the fate of Alexander the Great in a similar undertaking; after some victories the army refused to advance further, and he was compelled to return amid terrible difficulties. He now turned his arms against the kingdom of Tangut, passed the desert of Gobi in winter, and defeated 300,000 men on a frozen lake; the Tangut dynasty was extirpated. He was meditating a war against the Niudjes when death ended his career. He was buried in his native home, and his funeral was celebrated with songs, and, some historians say, with a hecatomb of beautiful young girls. His empire was divided among his 4 sons, Oglutai, chosen great khan, Djagatai, Tului, and Tutshee, whose armies soon completed the conquest of China, overthrew the caliph of Bagdad, made the sultan of Iconium tributary, and penetrated as far as the Oder and the Danube.

GENII, among the Romans, supernatural beings, corresponding to the demons (daμoves) of the Greeks, and analogous to the guardian angels of Christians. They were regarded as accompanying men from their birth through life as a kind of second or spiritual self; and every living thing and every place had its genius. Those of women were called Junones. It was customary for every one on his birthday to worship his genius as sanctus et sanctissimus deus, with libations and flowers. The collective Roman people had its genius, which was sometimes represented on coins.-The genii or djinns of the East are regarded as an intermediate class of beings between angels and men, but inferior in dignity to both, of pre-Adamite origin, created of fire, and capable of becoming invisible, or assuming the forms of men, brutes, or monsters, at pleasure. They eat and drink, are subject to passions and death, but may live for centuries. Their principal abode is in the Kaf chain of mountains, which is believed to encompass the earth, and to which they were compelled to retreat by an ancient Persian king who was a powerful necromancer. Djinnestan

is the common name of this ideal region. They also frequent baths, wells, ovens, ruined houses, seas and rivers, cross roads, and market-places. Their prince or chief is Eblis, so called from his despair, who was at first one of the angels nearest to God's presence, and was called Azazel, but was cast out of heaven for refusing, at the command of God, to pay homage to man at the time of the creation. His reply to the command was: "Thou hast created me of fire, and hast created him of earth.” Some of them are believers in Islam, others infidels; some are good and some evil; and of both classes the Arabs stand in great awe. They pervade the earth, and rise to the firmament, where on the confines of the lowest heaven they listen to the conversation of angels respecting future things, and are thus enabled to assist diviners and magicians. Shooting stars are believed to be arrows shot by the angels against genii who transgress their limits. The peris, or fairies, are beautiful female genii, who believe in God and Mohammed his prophet, and seek to do good on the earth. The ghouls are a subordinate class of evil genii, haunting deserts and burial grounds, and killing and devouring men and women that fall in their way. The evil genii delight in mischief for its own sake, raise and direct whirlwinds, and dry up the springs of the desert. When the Zobaah, a whirlwind that raises the sand in the form of a pillar to a lofty height, sweeps over the desert, the Arabs, who believe it to be caused by the flight of evil genii, cry out: "Iron! iron!" of which metal the genii are believed to have great dread; unlike the Irish peasantry, who believed that whirlwinds of dust were raised by the fairies, and on such occasions used to raise their hats and say: "God speed you, gentlemen!" During the month of Ramadan the genii are believed to be confined in prison.

GENITIVE, in grammar, the second case in the declension of nouns and pronouns, generally indicating the relation expressed in English by the preposition of. It is distinguished as subjective or objective, the former denoting the source and the latter the object of the idea contained in the qualified noun; thus, respectively, "the deeds of heroes,” and “the fear of God." There is also a partitive genitive, following and completing the meaning of adjectives and adjec tive pronouns, as full of wine." The English possessive case, marked by the addition of the letter s preceded by an apostrophe, as "a bird's flight," is an instance of the genitive.

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GENLIS, FÉLICITÉ STÉPHANIE DUCREST DE, countess, a French authoress, born near Autun, Jan. 25, 1746, died in Paris, Dec. 31, 1830. She had a taste for music, acquired great proficiency on the harp, and was able to perform on the piano and 6 other instruments; but her education was almost entirely neglected, and she thought of nothing but amusement. When scarcely 15 years of age, she was married to Count Bruslart de Genlis, a friend of her father who had fallen in love with her on seeing her portrait. Asham

ed of her ignorance, she then devoted herself to study. By the influence of her aunt, Mine. de Montesson, who had been secretly married to the duke of Orleans, she was in 1770 appointed a lady in waiting in the household of the duchess de Chartres; became soon afterward governess of the daughter of that princess, and was formally nominated in 1782 by the duke "governor" of his three sons, the eldest of whom was afterward King Louis Philippe. Such a title given to a woman gave rise to no little scandal, and the influence she subsequently exercised upon the political course of her employer, the notorious Philippe Egalité, seemed to warrant the most injurious suspicions. During her governorship she published several works devoted to the moral education of her pupils the Théâtre d'éducation, Annales de la vertu, Adèle et Théodore, Les veillées du château -which were generally well received by the public, and were highly praised by Gaillard, La Harpe, and other eminent critics. During the first years of the revolution she proclaimed her liberal opinions, and is said to have been the principal adviser of Philippe Égalité. She was obliged, however, to emigrate in 1792, and retired for a while to Switzerland, and then to Prussia. Amid all her troubles, she neglected no opportunity of mingling in worldly pleasures, and acquired a special notoriety at Berlin. During this period of her life she wrote and published several works, among which were her Mères rivales, Les petits émigrés (new and revised edition, 1858), Le petit La Bruyère. In 1800 she returned to France, and was well received by the first consul; she was allowed handsome apartments at the arsenal and a pension of 6,000 francs, to which the wife of Joseph on his accession to the throne of Naples added an annuity of 3,000. In return for this, she had to write twice a month to Napoleon, and communicate to him her opinions and observations on politics and current events. She was convinced, and indeed declared, that these communications influenced the course of Napoleon in many important circumstances. This period of comparative repose and prosperity was also one of literary activity; she gave to the public, among other works, Mlle. de Clermont, the best of her performances, which ranks among standard novels in the French language, La duchesse by La Vallière, Mme. de Maintenon, and Le siège de La Rochelle. In 1814, although she had frequently, and with good reason, called Napoleon her benefactor, she went over to the Bourbons, but was coldly received. She met with little more encouragement from the Orleans family, who contented themselves with paying a small pension to their old "governor." Her temper meanwhile, which never had been very gentle, became sullen and unmanageable; her misanthropy increased with years; but her wrath was especially directed against the philosophers of the last century; she published amended editions, with critical notes, of several works of Rousseau and

Voltaire, and she even contemplated a similar "emendation" of the Encyclopédie, but, appalled at the magnitude of the undertaking, gave it up, and turned her pen against the most popular contemporary authors. Mme. de Staël, Byron, Sir Walter Scott, and Lamartine, were among the objects of her attacks. She was 60 years of age when she published her historical novel Jeanne de France, and over 80 when she completed her personal Mémoires, in 10 large 8vo. vols. In her latter years the once dashing fashionable lady had become a repulsive old woman, dressing in a slovenly manner and living in a gloomy apartment in one of the suburbs of Paris. Before her death, she witnessed the elevation to the throne of her pupil Louis Philippe; but estranged as she had been from him for long years, this was no joy to her. One of the most prolific writers in the French language, her admirers boasted that she had written as many volumes as Voltaire, if not more.

GENNESARETH, LAKE OF, called also the sea of Cinnereth, the sea of Galilee, the sea of Tiberias, and by the Arabs Bahr Tubariyeh, situated in Palestine, 90 m. N. of the Dead sea, and traversed by the river Jordan. It lies amid a circle of hills 620 feet above the level of the Mediterranean, occupies the bottom of a great basin of volcanic origin and of an oval form, and is about 13 m. long and 6 m. wide. There is little variety or beauty in its natural features, and the interest connected with it springs from its associations, especially from the fact that much of the public life of Christ was spent on its shores. Populous cities and villages then flourished around it, as Magdala, Capernaum, Chorazin, the two Bethsaidas, Gamala, and Hippos; and multitudes followed him as he taught along its beach or on the bordering heights. Four at least of the apostles were fishermen on this lake. The borders are now nearly desolate, and the fisheries neglected.

GENOA (Ital. Genova; Fr. Gênes; anc. Genua), an administrative division of the kingdom of Sardinia, bounded N. by Alessandria, E. by Parma and Modena, S. by the Mediterranean (gulf of Genoa), and W. by Savona; area, 1,250 sq. m.; pop. in 1857, 570,432. It is divided into the provinces of Genoa, Chiavari, Novi, and Levante. The duchy of Genoa, as constituted by the congress of Vienna, included the present division of Savona, and, stretching in a semicircle around the head of the gulf, was divided into the Riviera di Levante (eastern coast), and Riviera di Ponente (western coast). It is traversed by the Ligurian Apennines. The mountains rise to a height of about 5,000 feet, forming abrupt declivities toward the sea, and sloping down gradually toward the N., where the Scrivia, Trebbia, and other rivers flow to the Po. The streams flowing into the sea, the Magra and others, are insignificant. The sea forms numerous bays, among others those of Rapallo and Spezzia. The climate is mild and mostly healthy, but piercing N. winds and exceedingly hot S. winds are not unfrequent. The

summits of the mountains are bare; the valleys as well as occasional terraces on the slopes produce grains, wine, oranges, almonds, figs, chestnuts, &c. Salt, marble, asbestus, alabaster, and gypsum are produced. The inhabitants, mostly descendants of the ancient Ligurians, are a robust, well formed, active, and industrious people. Their common dialect is peculiar, and hardly intelligible to other Italians. Many of them are engaged in iron works, tanneries, paper mills, and cloth factories.-GENOA, the capital of the duchy, not undeservedly surnamed la Superba, is situated on the N. extremity of the gulf of the same name; lat. 44° 24′ 20′′ N., long. 8° 55′ 55′′ E.; pop. in 1857, 119,610. It is surrounded by a double wall, the smaller encircling the inner city, by ramparts and extensive outworks, detached forts, and redoubts, which make it one of the best fortified cities of Europe. Its large semicircular harbor is defended by two converging moles, the eastern or old, and the western or new. Near the former are the custom house and its environs (dogana), and the so called free harbor (porto franco); near the latter a lofty lighthouse and the quarantine; on the N. side of the harbor is the arsenal with a state dock and the bagnio. Viewed from the harbor, the city, rising like an amphitheatre, with its churches, palaces, promenades, and gardens, with its encircling fortifications, and with the bare summits of the Apennines and the ice-covered peaks of the Alps behind, offers one of the grandest and most picturesque sights in the world. The streets are mostly narrow, irregular, and steep; many are inaccessible to carriages. Some, however, are straight and handsome. But Genoa is principally famed for its palaces. They are rich in works of sculpture and painting, as are also the churches and chapels. Of these there are about 250, the most conspicuous of which are the Duomo or cathedral of San Lorenzo, the San Siro, Annunziata, Santa Maria di Carignano, San Matteo, Sant' Ambrogio, and San Stefano. Some are the works of private munificence, and some owe their foundation to the earliest times of the Genoese republic. The city is also adorned with various public places (piazze), with numerous historical monuments, including statues of Columbus, Andrea Doria, and other distinguished natives, with theatres, promenades, collections of art, and institutions of benevolence and learning, including a university, an academy of fine arts, a naval school, a school of medicine, an institution for the deaf and dumb, a botanical garden, rich libraries, and hospitals. It is the seat of an archbishop, a governor, and various high civil, military, and naval officers; it has a dock yard, an exchange, and several railroad depots, being connected by rail with Turin, Milan, and other places. Magnificent highroads lead over the mountains in every direction. Numerous steamers maintain communication with Marseilles, Leghorn, and other cities of the Mediterranean. Genoa is an important naval

station, and the chief commercial emporium of Sardinia; it also imports for Lombardy. Its exports consist chiefly of fruits and home manufactures, silk and velvet goods, ribbons and artificial flowers, wax, cloth, hats, soaps and perfumes, maccaroni and preserves, and various articles of ivory, alabaster, coral, marble, and precious metals. The imports in 1855 were valued at $48,000,000, and the exports at $31,000,000.-The history of Genoa may be traced back in legendary traditions to a time preceding the foundation of Rome. Livy mentions it first, at the beginning of the 2d Punic war, as a town in friendly relations with the Romans. It was subdued and partly destroyed during that war by a Carthaginian fleet, which sailed from the Balearic isles under the command of Mago; the Romans rebuilt it, and it afterward became a Roman municipium. In the time of Strabo it was an emporium for the produce of the interior, exchanged by the Ligurians for the wine and oil of other parts of Italy. After the fall of the western empire it suffered greatly from the invading Goths, was taken by the Lombards in the 7th century, and conquered from them in the 8th by Charlemagne, who appointed a count for the government of the coast of Liguria. After the dismemberment of the Frankish empire, it became independent, and shared the fate of the Lombard cities, participating in their bloody struggles during the long contest for the iron crown of Lombardy, between the emperors of Germany, the Berengarii, and others. Having been pillaged in 935 by the Saracens, who at that time infested the shores of the Mediterranean, Genoa strengthened its navy, made an alliance with Pisa, and finally succeeded in expelling the Mohammedans from the islands of Corsica, Capraja, and Sardinia (1016-'21), of the two former of which it kept possession. An expedition to Africa, undertaken in 1088, was no less successful. Genoa was then governed by consuls, the first of whom are recorded in the latter part of the 11th cen. tury, and was already formidable at sea, preceding the Venetians in controlling the commerce of the Levant. But the maritime importance of the Genoese roused the jealousy of their commercial neighbors, and they had to struggle for the maintenance of their power in the western part of the Mediterranean against the rival republic of Pisa, and in its eastern part against Venice. The hostilities with the former commenced in the year 1070. The Genoese had a share in the glory and success of the first crusaders, their services being rewarded with a part of the coast of Palestine, including Acre. After the 2d war with Pisa (1118-32), they undertook an expedition against the Moors of Spain, with a large fleet carrying a land force of 12,000 men, conquered the island of Minorca (1146), Almeria in the province of Granada (1147), where they found immense booty, and, in concert with the Catalonians, Tortosa (1148). Their power was also rapidly extended over the coast of the Mediterranean; before the close of the 12th cen

tury they were masters of Monaco, Nice, Montferrat, Marseilles, and nearly the whole coast of Provence. The 3d war with Pisa commenced in 1162, and continued for nearly a century, The 4th, in 1282, opened with a great naval victory of the Genoese over the Pisans, who lost 3,000 killed and 13,000 prisoners, most of whom were doomed by the cruelty of the victors to perish in chains; it was concluded by the conquest of Elba, and the destruction of the harbor of Pisa, under Corrado Doria (1290). Thus peace was conquered, and the might of the rival republic destroyed. No less severe had been the struggle with Venice since the conquest of Constantinople by the Franks (1204), which was achieved under the lead and greatly to the profit of that republic. Having assisted Michael Palæologus to reconquer the capital of the Byzantine empire (1261), the Genoese were rewarded with the suburbs of Pera and Galata, and the port of Smyrna, which possessions made them the masters of the Black sca. After several naval battles a truce was concluded with Venice in 1271. On the termination of the wars with Pisa a mighty Genoese fleet crossed the Adriatic, and won a great victory near Curzola, where 84 Venetian galleys were taken or burned, and 7,000 captives made, among then the admiral Dandolo. This was followed by a treaty of peace (1299), which surrendered the commerce of the Black sea to the exclusive dominion of the Genoese, whose flourishing colonies and factories defended by forts soon lined all its coasts. Kaffa, or Feodosia, in the Crimea, conquered by them, became one of the finest commercial cities of Europe. Favored by the friendship and the indolence of the Byzantines, they carried on the commerce of the East, including India, through the Euxine and the Caspian seas. A new war with Venice broke out in 1346, in which the Genoese were victorious in a sea fight, in sight of Constantinople, but were beaten in another near the coast of Sardinia. To escape the consequence of this defeat and the perils of intestine commotions, they subjected themselves to the duke of Milan, Giovanni Visconti, whose yoke, however, they soon shook off. Having recommenced the war (1377), they took Chioggia, besieged Venice, and nearly reduced it, when two of its citizens, Vettor Pisani and Carlo Zeno, revived the spirit of the besieged, created a new fleet, blockaded Chioggia, and compelled the Genoese to surrender. The peace of Turin (1381) terminated the wars of the two greatest maritime republics of the middle ages; it was preserved, with slight interruptions, during the decline of both, caused particularly by the conquests of the Turks in the East, and the maritime discoveries in the West. Giustiniani and his companions strove heroically, but in vain, to save the great bulwark of Christendom, Constantinople, and the interests of Genoa (1453); and Mohammed II. revenged himself by stripping the republic of all its possessions in the East; even the com

mercial access to the Euxine was soon closed by the Turks.-During all this growth and decline of the republic, its internal commotions, caused by the parties of the plebeians and patricians, and the subdivisions of the latter, had been a source of continual perils and distractions. Having been governed by consuls till 1190, then by podestas (annual magistrates, who were chosen from foreign cities) till 1270, it fell under the usurpation of Oberto Spinola and Oberto Doria, the ". captains of liberty," who reconciled the lower classes, and maintained their power till 1291. A new change was the institution of the council of 12 members, subsequently of 24, 12 nobles and 12 plebeians. The feuds and even fights of the democratic and aristocratic parties, the Guelphs and Ghibellines, were meanwhile continuous. The latter faction, whose chiefs were the Dorias and Spinolas, was at last overcome and exiled by their opponents, headed by the Fieschi and Grimaldis, but afterward found means of returning. These party struggles assumed the worst shape in the first half of the 14th century. To remedy these evils the dogate for life was instituted (1339), with the exclusion of the nobles of both parties. But neither this nor the addition of councils was sufficient to give peace to the distracted state; new contentions arose with new families; there were doges and anti-doges; some were exiled, others forced upon the people. The Viscontis of Milan, and at a later period the kings of France, availed themselves of these dissensions to take possession of the republic. Francis I. held it during the first part of his wars with Charles V., but in 1528 the celebrated admiral Andrea Doria delivered the state from the French, and established a new constitution, which lasted to the end of the republic. The new form of government was strictly aristocratic; a roll of families both plebeian and patrician was formed, the nobility divided into the old and new; the former comprised the Grimaldis, Fieschi, Dorias, Spinolas, and 24 others distinguished by age, honors, or riches, and the latter 437 houses, to which new families could be added; the doge was elected for 2 years, and both branches of the nobility could aspire to this dignity. But the power of the state had long since departed; its conquests, colonies, and maritime stations were lost one after another; the last of them, Corsica, revolted in 1730, and was ceded to France in 1768; the commerce of the seas and of the East passed successively through the hands of the Portuguese, Spaniards, Dutch, and English; the flag of Genoa was insulted with impunity by the Mohammedan pirates of northern Africa, and its naval force was a mere shadow of the ancient fleets which awed all the shores of the Mediterranean and Black seas. The single bank of St. George (compera di San Giorgio), which had been founded in 1407, still maintained its dignity and importance as an institution for loans and deposits, to which even foreign states, and particularly Spain, were greatly indebted. When in 1796 the French

had conquered the neighboring territories, Genoa strove in vain to sustain itself by neutrality. A rising of the democratic party was suppressed, after several days of bloodshed, by the nobles, who were assisted by the poorest of the population; but the French directory took the part of the democracy, and demanded a change in the constitution. This demand was supported by an army, and finally agreed to. The French garrison was taken into the city, and the state changed into the republic of Liguria, with a constitution like that of France, and some additional territory. In 1799 Genoa, under Masséna, sustained a siege by the Austrians and English, and was compelled to capitulate to the former, who were obliged, however, to give it up after the battle of Marengo (1800). The victorious Bonaparte, as first consul, gave it a new and less democratic constitution, which was soon abolished on the establishment of the French empire. After the coronation of Napoleon at Milan, the last of the doges, Durazzo, repaired to that city, and expressed the desire of the people for the change; and the decree of June 4, 1805, merged the republic in the empire, to form the 3 new departments of Genoa, Montenotte, and the Apennines. The bank of St. George, whose credit had greatly suffered by repeated loans to the state, was abolished, and the debts of the latter transferred to the account of France. In 1814 Genoa was occupied by the English, with whose permission the ancient constitution was reestablished. But the congress of Vienna (1815) annihilated the independence of Genoa, giving it as a duchy to Sardinia. In 1821 it joined for a moment the revolutionary movements of Italy. There was nothing remarkable in its history in 1848, but at the end of March, 1849, after the defeat of Charles Albert at Novara, and the conclusion of a truce with the Austrians, a revolutionary outbreak took place, the national guards occupied the forts, and the garrison was compelled to withdraw. A provisional government, under Avezzana, Morchio, and Reta, was formed, and the independence of the republic was proclaimed. But a large body of Sardinian troops, under Gen. Della Marmora, soon appeared before Genoa; a bloody struggle ensued, and the forts and principal points of the city were taken by the royal soldiery. In the meanwhile a deputation was sent to Turin, which returned with the amnesty of the king, excluding, however, the chief leaders of the movement, who had withdrawn on board the U. S. steamer Princeton. On April 10 Genoa was disarmed, and the monarchical government restored. During the Italian war of 1859, the city served as the landing place of the French troops arriving by sea.

GENOUDE (originally GENOUD), ANTOINE EUGÈNE DE, a French journalist, born in Montélimart in Feb. 1792, died in Hyères, April 19, 1849. He began his career as a political writer by contributing to the royalist journal Le conservateur. In 1820 he founded the journal Le défenseur, and in 1821 he bought the Étoile,

which has since born the name of La gazette de France. He abandoned his intention of entering the priesthood when, in 1822, he was ennobled by Louis XVIII. In 1835, however, after the death of his wife, he returned to his original plan, took orders, and began to preach in Paris. The archbishop of Paris soon ordered him to quit either preaching or journalism, and he chose the former alternative. In 1846 he was elected by the city of Toulouse member of the chamber of deputies, and in that body acted with the legitimist opposition. He differed, however, in many points from the legitimist party in general, defending universal suffrage, national representation, and legitimacy allied with popular sovereignty. In Feb. 1848, at the outbreak of the revolution, he spoke against the establishment of a regency, and allied himself with the revolutionary party in order to attempt a restoration of the Bourbons by means of a general vote of the people. When he saw that his efforts were fruitless he retired from public life. The bold advocacy of his principles in the Gazette de France involved him in 63 lawsuits, which cost him more than 100,000 francs. He wrote a Histoire de France (16 vols., Paris, 1844-7), and published a French translation of the Bible, and of the "Imitation of Christ," an edition of the complete works of Malebranche (1837), and of the select works of Fénélon (1842), and of Bossuet (1845).

GENS D'ARMES, originally in France the whole body of armed men (gens armata), but from the 12th century applied particularly to armed men of noble rank, who are usually called in the documents of the time milites in Latin, and chevaliers in French. The term assumed a more precise signification under Charles VII., designating the 100 men of rank who formed the élite of each compagnie d'ordonnance. The gendarmerie acquired great celebrity under Charles VIII., Louis XII., and Francis I., especially in the wars of Italy. It declined in the 16th century, and the name had ceased to be much in use, when during the revolutionary period it was given to a corps composed of infantry and cavalry employed to protect the roads and streets and to enforce the orders of the police. The duties of rural police in France are performed by mounted gens d'armes, selected from the army. They are each paid $400 per annum, out of which they provide a horse and a handsome uniform.

GENSERIC (from Gaiserich, prince of the spear), a Vandal conqueror, bastard brother and successor of Gonderic, died in 477. The Vandals had passed the Alps and the Pyrénées, and devastated and conquered the greatest part of Spain. In 429, when the weak and debauched Valentinian III. occupied the throne of the crumbling western empire, they were called to the province of Africa by Boniface, the governor, who had been induced by intrigues and the fear of a rival to betray his master. Eager for conquest, these northern barbarians prepared a fleet, and were ready to embark when the unexpected