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barous, bloody fights and duels were customary, hounds were used in war, polygamy was not prohibited, and females were little more than slaves; the polytheism which prevailed among the common people, especially among the Gael, was ruder than that of Italy; the mysteries of the druids, whose influence prevailed chiefly among the Kymri, were stranger than those of the augurs, and the altars of the gods smoked with the blood of human victims. (See DRUIDS, and BARD.) The remains commemorative of Gallic culture are extremely scanty, and many a French writer of the romantic school has tried in vain to shed lustre over the life and character of the people who, with their successive conquerors, the Romans and Franks, were the ancestors of the French nation. The chief national features of resemblance are vivacity and rapidity in resolution and action, and great love of military glory. It must also be acknowledged that in the defence of their native soil and independence the Gauls of the 1st century B. C. developed the same dauntless and desperate courage and resolution which made the France of the revolution invincible. The absence, however, of national union and centralization, and the genius of a Cæsar in the camp of the enemy, led to their conquest. The details of that bloody war may be read in the "Commentaries" of the great Roman general himself. Its chief events (as far as regards Gaul) are the defeat of the Helvetians in the murderous battle near Bibracte, and the expedition against the Suevi under Ariovistus undertaken on the call of the Ædui, in 58; the conquest of Belgic Gaul in 57; the invasion of Armorica or Brittany by land and sea, the submission of Aquitania, and the reduction of the wild tribes on the N. E. coast, in 56; the sudden and successful attacks of the Eburones under Ambiorix, and their annihilation, in 53 and 52; the great rising of central Gaul under Vercingetorix, the double blockade at Alesia, and the fall of Avaricum, the last stronghold of the natives, in 52 and 51. The loss of the Gauls in these struggles, in which genius and discipline conquered unbridled and tumultuous valor, was little less than a million of men. The whole Transalpine country was divided by Augustus into 4 provinces: Gallia Narbonensis (Narbonne), the former Provincia Romana, Gallia Aquitanica, Gallia Lugdunensis, and Gallia Belgica, to which were added later the divisions Germania Superior or Prima, and Germania Inferior or Secunda, on the Rhine. Other subsequent divisions are less important. For more than 2 centuries after its conquest by Cæsar, Gaul remained almost entirely quiet, and its Romanization progressed rapidly, the national habits and religion retiring by degrees toward the shores of the north-western sea, and eventually finding refuge in the islands beyond it. The history of the country in the times of the Roman emperors, under the later of whom it was Christianized, belongs to that of Rome. Civil wars and dissensions in the 3d

century, and later the invasions of the Alemanni, Franks, Burgundians, Visigoths, Huns, and other barbarians, brought about its decay. Clovis made it Frankish. (See FRANCE.) GAUSS, KARL FRIEDRICH, a German mathematician, born in Brunswick, April 30, 1777, died in Göttingen, Feb. 23, 1855. He early displayed such remarkable capacity for mathematical calculation, that (his parents being poor) the duke of Brunswick took charge of his education. At the age of 18, while a student at Göttingen, he solved a problem which had occupied geometers from the time of Euclid, that of the division of the circle into 17 equal parts. In 1801 he published his Disquisitiones Arithmetica, treating of indeterminate analysis or transcendental arithmetic, and containing, beside many new and curious theorems, a demonstration of the famous theorem of Fermat concerning triangular numbers. It gave him at once a distinguished place among scientific men. He was one of the first to calculate, by a new method, the orbit of the newly dis covered planet Ceres, and afterward that of Pallas, for which he received from the French institute in 1810 the medal founded by Lalande. In 1807 he was appointed professor of mathematics and director of the new observatory at Göttingen, a position which he retained till his death. His profound works, though produced with a rapidity that astonished the savants of Europe, were elaborated with the greatest care, and many of them mark an era in the history of science. He wrote only on mathematics, but was also interested in politics and literature, loved to read the newspapers and converse on the events of the day, and is said to have been exasperated that any credit was given to the accounts of table-tippings at a time when so many efforts were made to enlighten the public by popularizing the sciences. From the year 1828 he never left Göttingen, and he did not see a locomotive till 1854. As a mathematician, he was pronounced by Laplace the greatest in Europe. Among the more important of his works are Theoria Motus Corporum Cœlestium (Hamburg, 1809; translated into English by C. H. Davis, Boston, 1857); Intensitas Vis Magnetica Terrestris (Göttingen, 1833); Dioptrische Untersuchungen (Göttingen, 1841); and Untersu chungen über Gegenstände der höhern Geodesio (Göttingen, 1844). Being appointed to measure a degree in Hanover, he rendered the most distant stations visible by means of the heliotrope, an instrument of his invention for reflecting solar light; and in connection with Weber he made valuable investigations concerning terrestrial magnetism.

GAUTAMA. See BUDDHISM AND BUDDHA. GAUTIER, THEOPHILE, a French writer, born in Tarbes, Aug. 31, 1811. He studied painting, but in 1828 gave up the brush for the pen, and published a small volume of poems, remarkable for picturesque originality. An eccentric and somewhat licentious novel, Mlle. de Maupin, which caused a considerable sensation was the

foundation of his literary fame. He contributed to the Revue de Paris, and more largely to the Artiste, of which he afterward became chief editor. In 1836 he was intrusted with the dramatic feuilleton of the Presse, and soon made his mark among those who are usually styled in Paris les princes de la critique. In 1854 he left the Presse, and took a similar position on the staff of the Moniteur. He has published a number of poems, novels, and books of travels, and has written dramas, vaudevilles, and ballets.

GAVARNI, the pseudonyme of a French caricaturist, whose real name is SULPICE PAUL CHEVALIER, born in Paris in 1801. He was at first a machinist, and commenced his artistical career by drawing theatrical costumes and fashion plates. In 1835 he began to publish an illustrated satirical paper which he called Les gens du monde. Many of his sketches were reproduced in the Charivari. A collection of his designs was published in 1845, in 4 vols., with letterpress by Balzac, Théophile Gautier, Jules Janin, &c. Two other volumes were added in 1850.

GAVAZZI, ALESSANDRO, an Italian preacher and political agitator, born in Bologna in 1809, joined the order of the Barnabites in 1825, and afterward officiated as professor of rhetoric at Naples. He was in Rome at the outbreak of the revolution in Lombardy, delivered in the Pantheon a funeral oration on those who had fallen in that struggle, and made passionate appeals in behalf of the independence of Italy. The pope appointed him almoner of the Roman legion which was despatched to Vicenza, and he was called by the people the Pietro Eremita, or Peter the Hermit, of the national crusade. In Venice he addressed immense crowds in St. Mark's place, and thus gained means for conducting the war. Pius IX., however, alarmed at the spread of the revolution, caused his army to return to Rome. Gavazzi repaired to Florence, and, after his expulsion from that city, to Genoa; but he was recalled to Bologna, where he was received with great enthusiasm by the people who had risen against the papal government. He was appointed by the republican government chaplain in chief of the army, and after the French occupation of Rome (1849), he found an asylum in England. He has since lectured in the United Kingdom and in the United States and Canada against the church and government of Rome. Since 1854 he has chiefly resided in London.

GAVELKIND, a tenure in England by which the estate descends, not to the eldest son, as by common law, but to all the sons, or if there be no sons, to all the brothers. The word is said by some persons to be derived from the English words " given to all the kindred;" but other derivations are suggested. It prevails throughout the English county of Kent, but is seldom met with in other counties. The best authorities, including Selden, believe that this was the general custom of England before

the Norman conquest. It is not the same with the universal tenure of this country, because here lands descend, as personals do both here and in England, to all the children, females included; and for want of them to brothers and sisters equally.

GAVIAL, or GARRHIAL, a crocodilian reptile of Asia and Africa, of the genus gavialis (Geoffroy), characterized by its very long, straight, and narrow jaws, somewhat enlarged at the extremity. The number of teeth is greater than in other crocodilians, being 110 to 120 in all, from 50 to 60 in each jaw; the upper mandible is not pierced for the passage of the lower teeth, but has 2 grooves in each side for the reception of the 1st and 4th under teeth, the anterior being deep and in the front of the jaw; the 5 or 6 anterior pairs, both above and below, are larger than the rest of the teeth, the largest being the 1st, 3d, and 4th above, and the 1st, 2d, and 4th below, and all are of a conical form, slightly depressed from before backward. The division of the lower jaw into 2 branches begins about the 22d tooth of the series of 26. The bony opening of the nasal fossa is triangular, and this is closed in the males by a large oval cartilaginous sac, whose cavity is supposed to serve as a reservoir of air when the animal plunges under water. There are 5 toes on the fore paws, and 4 on the hind, the middle 3 of the former being united at their base by a very short web, and the external 3 of the latter by a thicker and more extensive membrane covered with small granular scales; the nails are feebly curved. The nuchal plates are 2, of large size and ridged, and oval form, sometimes with a small plate on each side of them; the cervical plates, 4 pairs, extend from the middle third of the neck to the dorsal covering in a longitudinal band, and are ridged on their median line; the upper part of the trunk is protected by 4 longitudinal series of ridged quadrilateral scales, each containing about 18, and the sides of the neck and flanks by flat smooth scales of medium size; the tail has from 34 to 40 circles of scales, becoming crested about the 6th or 7th on each side, the double portion becoming single and the highest near the middle of the length; the under surface of the body is covered by about 60 transverse rows of smooth, oblong, quadrilateral scales, each pierced on the posterior border by a small opening. The scales of the limbs are rhomboidal, and on the posterior ones from the ham to the little toe furnished with a serrated crest. The common species, the gavial of the Ganges (G. Gangeticus, Geoff.), is of a deep sea-green color above, with numerous irregular brown spots, smallest and thickest about the jaws, and below pale yellowish white; the young have the back and limbs banded with black. It attains a length of over 20 feet, though the specimens usually seen are considerably smaller than this; in the adult the head is a little less than, and the tail about of the total length of the animal. Though most common in the river Ganges, it is found in other rivers of Asia; and other species

have been described from Africa. Notwithstanding its large size and numerous teeth, the gavial feeds on fishes and small prey; the narrowness and feebleness of the jaws do not enable it to seize large land animals, like the wide and stronger jawed crocodile and alligator. The general structure and habits of the gavial do not differ essentially from those of the CROCODILE, to which article the reader is referred. The fossil crocodiles which existed toward the end of the secondary epoch all had the elongated jaws of the gavial, the true crocodiles not appearing until the tertiary period at the same time with their mammalian prey. The crocodilus priscus of Sömmering, the teleosaurus and the steneosaurus of Geoffroy, all had the cranial characters of the gavial. This reptile, though now confined to the warmest regions of the earth, in former geological ages lived with alligators and crocodiles in northern and now temperate Europe.

GAY, CLAUDE, a French traveller and botanist, born in Draguignan, March 18, 1800. In 1828 he went to Chili to study the botany, zoology, geology, and meteorology of that country, extending his observations through its almost unexplored regions, and receiving great encouragement from its government. With the exception of a few months in 1832, when he returned to France for meteorological instruments, he remained in Chili until 1842. After his return to Paris in that year he published at the expense of the Chilian government, and with the aid of several assistants, especially in the historical part, his Historia fisica y politica de Chile (Paris, 1843-'51), in 24 vols., of which 6 are devoted to the history, 2 to the historical documents, 8 to the botany, and 8 to the zoology of the country, beside an atlas in 2 large 4to. vols., composed of 315 plates. This work is written entirely in Spanish, and is considered second only in authority and value to those of Humboldt on South America. M. Gay has also made scientific explorations of Peru, Brazil, and Buenos Ayres, and has travelled in Russia, Asia Minor, Greece, and Morocco. He is the author of a number of special treatises on botanical subjects.

GAY, DELPHINE. See GIRARDIN.

GAY, EBENEZER, D.D., an American clergy.man, born in Dedham, Mass., Aug. 26, 1696, was graduated at Harvard college in 1714, and was settled over the church at Hingham, Mass., in 1718, its third pastor since the settlement of the town in 1635, and of which he remained the clergyman 69 years and 9 months, till his death in 1787. On his 85th birthday he preached a sermon from the text: "Lo, I am this day fourscore and five years old," which, under the title of "The Old Man's Calendar," has been frequently republished in America, went through several editions in England, and was translated into one or two of the continental languages of Europe. Many other of his sermons were published, and had a high reputation in their day. He was a man of great learning, and VOL. VIII. -8

was known for his wit as well as for his virtues. In his theology he was liberal, though he was a tory in principles, and suffered some persecution from his own parishioners during the war of the revolution. Ex-president John Adams said, on the first distinctive announcement of Unitarianism in this country, that he had heard the doctrine from Dr. Gay long before. He married Jerusha Bradford, a granddaughter of Gov. Bradford of Plymouth colony, by whom he had a large family. He died when 90 years of age, on Sunday, when about to enter the pulpit for the services of the day.-MARTIN, an American physician, great-grandson of the preceding, born in Boston, Feb. 16, 1803, died there, Jan. 12, 1850, was graduated at Cambridge in the class of 1823. He had a high reputation as an analytical chemist, and his testimony was of great weight in courts of justice in cases of death by poisoning, at a time when but little attention had been given to this branch of medical jurisprudence.-WINCKWORTH ALLAN, an American artist, brother of the preceding, born in Hingham, Mass., Aug. 18, 1821. At an early age he became a pupil of Mr. Weir, professor of drawing at the military academy at West Point, with whom he remained several years. Subsequently he went to Europe, and passed 5 years there in study, a part of the time under Troyon in Paris. He paints exclusively in landscape, and his style is that known as the modern French. "A Scene in the White Mountains," a picture painted for the Boston Athenæum, is a good specimen of his method of treatment of mountain scenery. Some of his best works depict that region. But he has also painted views of Nantasket beach and rocks, which have attracted much attention, and some critics have pronounced coast scenery to be his proper speciality.

GAY, JOHN, an English poet, born near Torrington, Devonshire, in 1688, died in London, Dec. 4, 1732. He was of an ancient but reduced family, and after receiving an elementary education at the grammar school of Barnstaple, was apprenticed to a silk mercer in London, but soon abandoned this business for literary pursuits. In 1711 he produced his poem "Rural Sports," which he dedicated to Pope, and a life-long friendship sprung up between the two poets. In the following year he became secretary to the duchess of Monmouth. His next work, "The Shepherd's Week," was written to throw ridicule on the pastorals of Ambrose Philips, and met with great success. In 1713 he brought out a comedy called "The Wife of Bath," which was acted only 3 nights. In 1714 he accompanied the British ambassador, Lord Clarendon, to Hanover as secretary. On the death of Queen Anne, however, he was dismissed from office, and driven once more to use his pen as a means of support. Soon after returning to England he produced a drama entitled "What d'ye Call It?" which was so well received that he made another attempt of a similar nature, in which he is said to have

been assisted by Pope and Arbuthnot; but owing to its personality and indelicacy, the "Three Hours After Marriage" proved a decided failure, and involved its author for a time in disgrace. In 1727 his celebrated "Beggar's Opera" was brought on the stage, and was represented for 62 successive nights, 4 of which were for his own benefit, and yielded him nearly £700. This piece was followed by another opera entitled "Polly;" but the lord chamberlain forbade its representation, and Gay was constrained to publish it by subscription, by which he realized £1,100 or £1,200. The most important of his other works are "Trivia, or the Art of Walking the Streets of London," and his "Fables," which are among the best of their kind in the language. Of his minor poems, the ballads of "Black-eyed Susan" and "Twas when the Sea was Roaring" are the most popular. Gay was at one time rich, but he lost nearly all his property by the bursting of the South sea bubble. His latter days were spent in the house of the duke of Queensberry. The prominent characteristics of his poetry are wit, simplicity, and sweetness. The best edition of his works is that of W. Coxe (London, 1796); the best edition of his "Fables," that of O. F. Owen (London, 1856).

GAY, MARIE FRANÇOISE SOPHIE, a French novelist, born in Paris, July 1, 1776, died March 5, 1852. She was the daughter of a French financier named Nichault de la Valette, and was married in 1793 to M. Liottier, from whom she was divorced in 1799. She then became the wife of M. Gay, receiver-general of finance in the department of La Roer, under the empire. She resided at Aix la Chapelle, where she formed a friendship with Pauline Bonaparte. As early as 1802 she had published anonymously in the Journal de Paris an article upon Mme. de Staël, and in the same year appeared her first novel, Laure d'Estell, which had a moderate success. She now laid aside her pen for a time, and in the fashionable society which gathered at her house was distinguished for wit and agreeable manners. In 1813 she published Léonie de Montbreuse, which is considered one of her best novels. This was succeeded in 1815 by Anatole, which narrates the loves of a deaf-mute, and in 1818 by Les malheurs d'un amant heureux, a very lively picture of manners during the empire. She continued to produce novels and books of various sorts until a few years before her death, among them Les souvenirs d'une vieille femme, a piquant abstract of her personal memoirs. She wrote for the stage, but not with marked success.

GAY-LUSSAC, JOSEPH LOUIS, a French chemist and physicist, born in St. Leonard, Limousin, Dec. 6, 1778, died in Paris, May 9, 1850. He was the eldest of 5 children, 3 daughters and 2 sons, of Antoine Gay, judge of that portion of St. Leonard called Pont de Noblat. The father adopted the additional name Lussac from that of a neighboring village, of which he was

principal proprietor. In the troubled times of the revolution the chief portion of his estate was confiscated, the father hardly escaping even with his life. In 1794 the eldest son was sent to Paris to complete his education. He soon displayed great mathematical talents, and in Dec. 1797, entered the polytechnic school, then called l'école centrale des travaux publics. From this he passed to the school of roads and bridges, where he became the favorite pupil of Berthollet, who soon recognized and encouraged his talent for original investigation, and placed him with his own son at the government chemical works at Arcueil, where the new bleaching process by chlorine was undergoing a course of experimental investigation. After this he returned to the polytechnic school as tutor. In 1802 he read before the academy a paper on the precipitation of the metallic oxides. In 1804 the institute of France, in order to determine if possible the question as to the diminution of the magnetic force at great heights above the surface, commissioned Gay-Lussac and Biot to conduct the investigations for this purpose; and at the request of Laplace the small balloon was furnished them which had been used in the expedition in Egypt. Ascending at 10 o'clock A. M., Aug. 24, they endeavored at an elevation of 4,000 metres to solve the problem by observing the time of duration of the oscillations of a needle suspended horizontally; the longer the vibrations the less of course being the force which brings back the needle. The rotation of the balloon itself seriously interfered with the observation, and the results were not deemed satisfactory. On Sept. 16 Gay-Lussac made another ascent alone at 9 h. 40 m. A.M., rising to the extraordinary height of 7,016 metres, or about 23,000 feet, above the level of the sea; and at 3h. 45m. he descended, landing between Rouen and Dieppe, 40 leagues from Paris. The results of his observations made important additions to our knowledge of the composition of the atmosphere, and its varying conditions at different heights. (See AEROSTATION.) Alexander von Humboldt investigated with him the qualities of the air brought down, and in their joint paper to the academy, Oct. 1, 1804, appeared the first announcement of the union of oxygen and hydrogen to form water in the simple proportion of 100 parts by measure of the former to 200 parts of the latter. In 1805 he visited Vesuvius with Humboldt and Leopold von Buch, and happily the volcano at the time of their observations suddenly became active. Gay-Lussac considered that volcanic phenomena are due not to the central heat of the globe, but to the action of sea water flowing in upon combustible matters. He adopted Von Buch's views as to the uplifting bodily of volcanoes. At Naples he showed the difference in the composition of the air contained in sea water and that of the atmosphere, the former consisting of more than 30 parts of oxygen in 100, and the latter of only 21. His observations upon the irregularities of the mag

netic needle, made during his travels in Italy, and thence into Germany with Humboldt, were published in vol. i. of the Mémoires de la société d'Arcueil, of which society Gay-Lussac was one of the earliest and most active members. In 1807 he directed his studies to the expansion of the air and gases under increased temperatures, and established the law that when free from moisture they all dilate uniformly and to equal amounts for equal increments of temperature at least when between 0° C. and 100° C. He also showed that the gases combine in simple proportions of their volumes, and that the contraction sometimes experienced by a compound of several is always an exact simple fraction, as ,,, of their joint bulk. His researches were in the same field with those in which Dalton also was engaged, and his conclusions were in general confirmatory of those of the English chemist, and served to extend the application of the newly devised atomic theory to gaseous bodies. The discoveries of Davy in decomposing by the voltaic pile compounds before regarded as simple, excited much interest in France; and Gay-Lussac and Thénard were appointed by Napoleon to pursue this class of researches. In the course of their experiments, on June 3, 1808, Gay-Lussac, by the accidental projection of a piece of potassium, lost for some time the use of his eyes. The results of their investigations were published in 1811 in 2 vols. 8vo., entitled Recherches physico-chimiques. By means of the great battery provided by the institute they prepared potassium and sodium in larger quantities than these elements had been obtained by Davy. They also developed the compound character of boracic and fluoric acids, introduced new methods of analyzing organic substances by their combustion with chlorate of potash, and elucidated the composition of many of these compounds. In the Annales de chimie et de physique, which Gay-Lussac edited together with Arago, and in other scientific journals of the day, were published many papers presenting other original researches of importance by the former, as upon the newly discovered elements iodine and cyanogen, on Prussian blue, on chloric and hydrosulphuric acids, on capillary attraction, and many other subjects. In 1816 he invented the siphon barometer, since modified by Bunten, by whose name it is best known. He also invented instruments for estimating the quantities of alcohol, chlorine, and alkali present in solutions, known severally as the alcoholometer, chlorometer, and alkalimeter. In 1832 he gave up the professorship at the Sorbonne, to which he had been appointed in 1809, and accepted that of general chemistry at the jardin des plantes. As an expounder of science he was distinguished for the clearness of his explanations. In 1831 he was chosen by the electors of his native town member of the chamber of deputies; in 1837 he was reëlected, and in 1839 he was made a peer of France.

GAYA, a town of British India, in the dis

trict of Bahar, presidency of Bengal, 265 m. N. W. from Calcutta; pop. 43,451. It consists of two parts, the old town, in which the Brahmins reside, and the new town, called Sahibgunge, from having been chiefly laid out by the British, inhabited by the secular population and Europeans. Gaya proper, or the old town, is well built in a peculiar style of architecture, but the streets are narrow, filthy, and hardly passable. There are numerous shrines and places of pilgrimage, visited by devotees from all parts of India. The Phalgu, a tributary of the Ganges, flows through the town, and is deemed a sacred stream. The most revered structure here is the temple of Vishnu, erected by a Mahratta princess, 82 feet in length, and crowned by an octagonal pyramid over 100 feet high. In the immediate vicinity are the remarkable ruins of Buddha-Gaya, supposed to have been the scene of the avatar of Buddha or Gautama; whence the sanctity of the existing town is derived, though it now contains no worshippers of Buddha. Sahibgunge, or the new town, has wide and straight streets, with rows of trees and foot walks on each side; but its houses for the most part are mere mud-built huts, and there are no public edifices, save a hospital for invalid pilgrins. On an area between the two towns stands the British civil establishment.

GAYANGOS, PASCUAL DE, a Spanish orientalist, professor of Arabic in the university of Madrid, born June 21, 1809. He studied at Paris under Silvestre de Sacy, travelled through northern Africa in 1828, married an English lady at Algiers, and was from 1831 to 1886 interpreter to the French ministry of foreign affairs. He afterward resided several years in England, and has published his most important works in the English language. His "History of the Mohammedan Dynasties of Spain," translated from the text of Al Makkari, with learned notes, appeared in London in 1840-48, in 2 vols. 4to. Prescott, who was greatly indebted to Gayangos for assistance in collecting materials for his historical works, calls this work "a treasure of oriental learning." In 1843 he was recalled to Madrid to fill the professorship which he still holds. He has made in conjunction with H. Vedia a Spanish translation of Ticknor's "History of Spanish Literature," to which he added copious notes (Madrid, 1851-'6).

GAYARRE, CHARLES A. ARTHUR, an American historian, born in Louisiana, Jan. 9, 1805. He belongs to one of the most ancient families in the state, some of his ancestors having assisted in the foundation of the French colony on the banks of the Mississippi; he was educated at the college of New Orleans, and gave early evidence of talent as a forcible writer. In 1825, the draft of a criminal code having been laid before the legislature by Edward Livingston, young Gayarré published a pamphlet in which some of its provisions were ably canvassed; and such was the sensation caused by this youthful performance that the adoption of

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