phantasia or imaginative faculty is but the counterpart of sense, reproducing material images, he yet affirms that the intellect, which is immaterial, immortal, and the characteristic distinction of man, has reflex operations, and apprehends universal and abstract ideas to which neither the senses nor the imagination can attain. His system is therefore akin to that of Locke rather than of the French followers of Locke, and even a part of his phraseology, as the actiones reflexiva, anticipates that of the "Essay on the Human Understanding." It does not appear, however, that Locke was acquainted with his writings. There is an apparent discrepancy between the language of Gassendi in his latest work and that employed in his controversy with Descartes, when it was his object to urge all possible objections rather than to state his own opinions. Not only as a metaphysician, but as an astronomer, geometer, anatomist, Hellenist, historian, and elegant writer, Gassendi merits distinction. He was the personal friend of most of the learned men of his time, the first disciple in France of Bacon, and the precursor of Newton. The aurora borealis, the parhelia, the conjunctions of Venus and Mercury, the occultations of the satellites of Jupiter, and the properties of the magnetic needle were among the subjects of his researches. He wrote the lives of the principal astronomers of his age, and in the preface gave a brief and admirable history of astronomy. He was esteemed personally for amiability, modesty, and moderation, and was long remembered by the peasants around Digne, not as a savant, but as a pious and exemplary priest. The latest complete edition of his works is that edited by Averrani (6 vols., Florence, 1728). An abridgment by Bernier (Paris, 1678) has been several times republished. His life has been written by Sorbière (for the first edition of his collected writings, Lyons, 1658), and by Bougerel (Paris, 1637).

GASTEROPODA (Gr. yaorηp, belly, and TOνs, Todos, foot), a class of the mollusca distinguished by the under side of the body forming a single muscular foot, on which the animal creeps or glides. The snails, limpets, chitons, &c., are examples of this class. They are divided into two natural groups, one breathing air (pulmonifera), the other water (bronchifera). These form the 4 orders of prosobranchiata, pulmonifera, opisthobranchiata, and nucleobranchiata. The shell is usually spiral and univalve, but sometimes tubular or conical; in the chiton it is multivalve. Some marine species, as the doris, phillidia, &c., have no shells. Some species are provided with a horny or shelly operculum, which forms the bottom of the foot, and when withdrawn closely shuts the aperture of the shell, to which it is firmly held by the strong muscles of this part of the body. In other species, as the limpet, patella, &c., the animal uses the expanded surface of the foot for attaching the shell firmly to rocks and other surfaces; the air being suddenly expelled from

beneath this surface, the shell is held closely to the rock, as if by strong muscular power.

GASTON, a Š. W. co. of N. Carolina, bordering on S. Carolina, bounded E. by Catawba river, and intersected by Catawba creek; area, about 350 sq. m; pop. in 1850, 8,073, of whom 2,112 were slaves. It has a diversified surface and an excellent soil. The productions in 1850 were 329,377 bushels of Indian corn, 51,762 of wheat, 535 bales of cotton, and 5,625 tons of hay. The value of the gold obtained during the same year from mines in this county was $97,786. There were 7 saw mills, 1 iron forge, 19 churches, and 1,520 pupils attending public schools. Value of real estate in 1857, $835,281. Taken from Lincoln co. in 1846, and named in honor of Judge William Gaston. Capital, Dallas.

GASTON, WILLIAM, an American jurist and statesman, born in Newbern, N. C., Sept. 19, 1778, died in Raleigh, Jan. 23, 1844. He was the son of Alexander Gaston, an eminent physician of Newbern, who was a prominent patriot in the early days of the revolution, and was murdered by a band of tories in the presence of his wife and children. Mr. Gaston was graduated at Princeton, N. J., in 1796, with the highest honors. Returning to Newbern, he studied law, and was admitted to the bar in 1798. Two years later he was elected to the senate of North Carolina, and subsequently to the house of commons, of which he was chosen speaker in 1808. While in the legislature he drew up the statute regulating the descent of inheritances, and the passage of the act establishing the supreme court system of the state was mainly due to his advocacy. In 1808 he was chosen by the federalists a presidental elector, and in 1813 he was elected to the U. S. house of representatives, where he served for 4 years, and, by his prudence, eloquence, and skill in debate, acquired a national reputation. He was one of the most influential leaders of the federal party. He opposed in a forcible speech the loan bill, which proposed during the war with Great Britain to place $25,000,000 at the disposal of the president, as was generally understood, for the conquest of Canada. His speech, which was widely read, and greatly admired, embraced a thorough discussion of the policy, object, and management of the war. He also made an able speech against the adoption of the previous question as a method of stopping debate in the house. In 1817 he retired from congress to devote himself to his profession. He soon attained the foremost rank in the bar of North Carolina, and for a long period was engaged in all important cases in the state. The chief of these was the "Granville case." This was a suit instituted by the English Earl Granville, the heir of one of the lords proprietors of North Carolina, to try the question of his title to a tract of land covering two-thirds of the state, which he claimed under the original charter granted by Charles II. If Earl Granville had gained the suit, a large proportion of the freeholders of North Carolina would have been

deprived of their estates. The prosecution of a claim of this sort was necessarily very unpopular; but disregarding the clamor of the multitude, and the odium he incurred, Mr. Gaston accepted the post of counsel for the claimant. "He would not," he said, "that a foreigner should fail of justice in our country for want of an advocate." In 1835 he was a member of the convention to revise the constitution of North Carolina, and was placed on all the principal committees, took a leading part in all important debates, and in a great measure guided the business of the convention. He spoke and voted against the proposition to deprive free colored men of the right of suffrage, which at that time they possessed, but which was taken from them by the new constitution. In 1834 he was made a judge of the supreme court of North Carolina, for which office his character, tastes, and intellectual qualities eminently fitted him, and which he refused to abandon for a seat in the senate of the United States. He was a Roman Catholic, and by the constitution of North Carolina, as commonly interpreted, was therefore incapable of holding any state office; but such was the universal regard for his character and ability that the clause in the constitution against the Catholics became a dead letter. He continued in this office till his death, which took place very suddenly. He fell lifeless in the midst of an animated conversation, in his last words declaring his faith in the "All-wise and Almighty."

GASTON DE FOIX, duke of Nemours, a French general, born in 1489, killed at Ravenna, April 11, 1512. He was the son of Jean de Foix, viscount of Narbonne, and of Marie d'Orleans, sister of Louis XII. In 1505 he was made duke of Nemours. In the beginning of 1512, at the age of 23, he was appointed commander of the French army in Italy, to carry on the war with Venice, the pope, and King Ferdinand of Spain, who had formed a "holy league" against Louis XII. of France. Notwithstanding his youth, he was ripe in understanding, and possessed consummate military talents. In less than a fortnight after taking command, by making rapid marches through the snow in midwinter, he raised the siege of Bologna, defeated the Venetian army under the walls of Brescia, and on the same day carried that city by storm. A few weeks later, on April 11, he brought the allied army to a decisive action under the walls of Ravenna, and, in one of the most hotly contested battles ever fought, defeated them with a loss on both sides of 20,000 men. The Italian forces were completely routed, but the famous Spanish infantry, which was then considered the best soldiery of Europe, retreated in good order with unbroken ranks. Gaston de Foix, flushed with victory, was exasperated at the defiant manner in which they left the field, and charged them rashly in person, followed by Bayard and about 20 other knights. He broke their line, but his horse was wounded, and fell in the midst of the enemy. His followers shouted to the Spaniards to spare him, "for he was the brother

of their queen," Ferdinand of Spain, after the death of Isabella, having espoused Gaston's sister, the princess Germaine de Foix. But Ferdinand's second marriage was not popular with the Spaniards, and they gave no heed to this appeal, but despatched Gaston with a multitude of wounds, of which 15 were in the face. When Bayard reached him he was already dead. His loss so disheartened the French that they reaped little advantage from their great victory. Louis XII. exclaimed on hearing the news, that he would give up every foot of territory he had in Italy if he could so recall to life his gallant nephew and the brave men who had fallen with him. A monument in the neighborhood of Ravenna marks the place where he fell. "There are few instances in history," says Prescott, "if indeed there be any, of so brief, and at the same time so brilliant a military career as that of Gaston de Foix; and it well entitled him to the epithet his countrymen gave him of 'the thunderbolt of Italy.' He had not merely given extraordinary promise, but in the course of a very few months had achieved such results as might well make the greatest powers of the peninsula tremble for their possessions. His precocious military talents, the early age at which he assumed the command of armies, as well as many peculiarities of his discipline and tactics, suggest some resemblance to the beginning of Napoleon's career." GASTRIC JUICE. See DIGESTION.

GATAKER, THOMAS, an English ecclesiastic, born in London in 1574, died about 1654. He wrote several works illustrative of the Scriptures. In 1642 he was chosen member of the assembly of divines at Westminster. In 1648 he remonstrated, in conjunction with 47 of his brethren, against the proceedings of the long parliament in relation to the king. In 1652 he published a critical edition of Marcus Aurelius's "Meditations," with notes, and an introductory discourse on the philosophy of the stoics. The best edition of his works is that published at Utrecht in 1698, in 2 vols. folio.

GATES, a N. E. co. of N. Carolina, bordering on Va., bounded S. W. by Chowan and Nottaway rivers, the former of which is here navigable; area, 353 sq. m.; pop. in 1850, 8,426, of whom 3,871 were slaves. The surface is generally level, and much of it is covered with oak and pine timber. The Dismal Swamp occupies the extreme E. part. The principal exports are Indian corn, tar, and lumber, and the productions in 1850 amounted to 28 bales of cotton, 119,673 bushels of sweet potatoes, 310,138 of Indian corn, and 4,204 of wheat. There were 8 corn and flour mills, 3 saw mills, 6 shingle mills, 13 churches, and 520 pupils attending public schools. The county was formed in 1779, and named in honor of Gen. Horatio Gates. Value of real estate in 1857, $730,324. Capital, Gatesville.

GATES, HORATIO, a major-general in the U. S. army, born in England in 1728, died in New York, April 10, 1806. He early entered the British army, and was an officer under

Braddock, at whose defeat in 1755 he was severely wounded. After the peace of 1763, he purchased an estate in Virginia, where he resided till the organization of the continental army in 1775. Appointed adjutant-general with the rank of brigadier, he accompanied Washington to Cambridge in July, 1775, and in June, 1776, received the chief command of the army which had just retreated from Canada. In the autumn following he joined Washington in the Jerseys, with a considerable detachment, and in March, 1777, in effect superseded Schuyler in the command of the northern army, and was superseded by him in May. When, however, Schuyler was obliged to retreat down the Hudson by the disasters which followed the loss of Ticonderoga, Gates was reinstated in the command by congress, Aug. 4, 1777. The surrender of the British army at Saratoga, which soon followed, gave to him a brilliant military repute, though it was in large measure due to the skilful previous operations of Schuyler. In the winter of 1777-'8 "Conway's cabal" intrigued to wrest the supreme command from Washington and to bestow it upon Gates. The latter was engaged in no important military operations till in June, 1780, he was appointed to the command of the southern forces. A caution that was given him not to exchange his northern laurels for southern willows proved prophetic, for the disastrous battle of Camden (Aug. 6) blasted his military fame, and he was superseded by Gen. Greene. His conduct was scrutinized by a committee of congress, and he was not acquitted of blame and restored to his military position till after the surrender of Cornwallis. On the conclusion of peace he retired to his estate in Virginia, whence he removed in 1790, after emancipating all his slaves, to the city of New York.

GATESHEAD, a municipal and parliamentary borough of Durham, England, on the right bank of the river Tyne, opposite Newcastle, with which it is connected by a viaduct and stone bridge of 9 arches; pop. in 1851, 25,568. Its manufactures comprise ships, anchors, chain cables, nails, hemp, wire ropes, &c. There are extensive collieries and grindstone quarries in the vicinity.

GATII, one of the 5 chief cities of Philistia, often mentioned in the history of David and his successors. The giant Goliath, who was slain by David, was either a native or an inhabitant of Gath. It was for centuries alternately under the power of the Jewish kings or independent, except a short period when it was under Syrian rule. In the time of Jerome it was a "very large village." Modern travellers give no description of the place.

GAUDEN, JOHN, an English bishop, supposed by some to have been the author of the Eikon Basilike, born in Mayland, Essex, in 1605, died Sept. 20, 1664. In the early part of his life he belonged to the popular party. After the outbreak of the civil war, he hesitatingly submitted to the Presbyterian discipline, omitted the lit

urgy from the church service, and even subscribed to the covenant, although he secretly wrote a treatise against it. After the restoration he was appointed chaplain to Charles II., and successively created bishop of Exeter and of Worcester. He claimed the authorship of the Eikon Basilike, or the "Portraiture of his Sacred Majesty in his Solitudes and Sufferings," a work which was once almost universally attributed to Charles himself, and which in one year went through 50 editions. Mr. Hallam and Sir James Mackintosh pronounce his claim valid.

GAUDENTIUS, a Latin theologian, bishop of Brescia, about the end of the 4th century. He was elected bishop by the clergy and people when very young, but declined the office till both the expostulations of St. Ambrose and threats of excommunication if he persisted in refusing prevailed over him. Little is known of his life, the most important event being his embassy to the court of Arcadius in 405 to carry aid to St. Chrysostom, for which the latter in one of his letters paid him an eloquent tribute of gratitude. There remain 21 discourses by him, written in a simple and dry style, though full of allegorical and imaginative conceptions.

GAUDICHAUD-BEAUPRÉ, CHARLES, a French botanist, born in Angoulême, Sept. 4, 1789, died in Paris, Jan. 26, 1854. In 1817 he accompanied, in the capacity of pharmaceutic botanist, the scientific expedition of Freycinet. The vessel on which he was, the Uranie, was wrecked upon the Falkland islands in the spring of 1820, and of the 4,175 botanical specimens which he had collected upward of 2,500 were lost. Upon his return to France he prepared the botanical history of the voyage. In 1830– '33 he took part in the expedition which explored the coast of South America in the Herminie, and subsequently circumnavigated the globe again in the Bonite. The remainder of his life was devoted to the classification of his specimens and the preparation and publication of his notes, and he carried on an acrimonious controversy with Mirbel on the subject of the process of vegetable growth. In the course of his life he was engaged in 29 duels, from most of which his skill as a swordsman enabled him to escape unharmed. He was nevertheless, according to his friends, averse to duelling.

GAUGING, the operation of measuring the capacity of barrels and other vessels of similar form. It is performed either by measuring the various dimensions of the cask, and then calculating by arithmetical rules the contents, according to the geometrical figure which the cask most nearly resembles, or else by simply measuring the diagonal distance from the bung to the opposite side of one head of the cask, and assuming all casks to be of one shape. In the latter method no calculation is needed, as the number of gallons is engraved directly on one side of the same gauging rod by which the dimension in inches is measured. If the cask is not full, it is also necessary to measure

the perpendicular distance from the bung to the surface of the liquor.

GAUL (GALLIA), the name applied by the Romans to two great divisions of their empire, distinguished from each other by the designations Cisalpine and Transalpine (in regard to Rome). Of these, Cisalpine Gaul (Gallia Cisalpina or Citerior), comprising the north of Italy to the confines of Etruria and Umbria, was divided by the Po (Padus) into Cispadane and Transpadane. It was also called Gallia Togata, or Romanized Gaul, from the inhabitants wearing togas like the Romans, and in contradistinction to the S. E. province of the Transalpine country, which was called Braccata from the bracce or wide trousers of its people. It was bounded N. W. and N. by the Alps, E. by the Athesis (now Adige), S. E. by the Adriatic, S. by the Rubicon, the Appenines, the Macra (now Magra), and the mountains of Liguria. Transalpine Gaul (Gallia Transalpina or Ulterior) was bounded W. and N. by the sea, E. by the Rhine, S. E. by the Alps, and S. by the Mediterranean and the Pyrénées, thus comprising not only the whole of modern France and Belgium, but also parts of Sardinia, Switzerland, Germany, and Holland. Both divisions were inhabited mostly by people of Celtic race (Gaelic and Kymric), called by the Romans in general Gauls (Galli), by the Greeks Keλraι or Taλarai; the Celto-Teutonic, Teutonic, Celto-Iberian, Iberian, Tuscan, Greek, and other elements of the population were comparatively small. (See CELTE.) These Celts or Gauls, a branch of the great Indo-European family of nations, had left their Asiatic homes at a period preceding the dawn of European history, and had occupied the western regions on the Rhine, Seine, Rhone and Garonne, Ebro and Tagus, as well as the islands of Britain, when the Roman state was still in its infancy. Of a turbulent, roving, and warlike disposition, they had scarcely settled on the shores of the Atlantic, which stopped their migration westward, when some of their tribes commenced entering northern Italy, according to Livy, under Bellovesus, a nephew of King Ambigatus, in the time of Tarquin the Elder. Others are said by the same historian to have taken their direction toward the Hercynian forest, under Sigovesus, another nephew of Ambigatus. Still others appear later, it is uncertain whence coming, in Macedon, Thrace, and Greece, where they burned Delphi, 279 B. C., and even in Asia Minor, where they founded Galatia or Gallo-Græcia, in Syria, and in Egypt. Tall, impetuous, and extremely reckless, with long hair and mustaches, they appeared terrible, not only to the effeminate people of the eastern countries, but to the Romans themselves. They fought on horseback, armed with large bucklers, lances, and swords. They were fond of adventure, greedy of gold, and boastful, made the use of arms a profession, served as mercenaries even in Carthage, and challenged foes and friends to single combats. Even where they were settled they preferred hunting and grazing to

agriculture. They were quick of temper, sudden in resolution, and inconstant, and therefore apt to conquer, but not to keep, to destroy, but not to make lasting foundations. There are no precise historical dates for the consecutive invasions of Cisalpine Gaul by the Celts; they are supposed to have occupied several centuries. Tribe followed tribe, and finally we find the Salassians settled in the vicinity of Ivrea (Eporedia), the Insubrians about Milan (Mediolanum), the Cenomani in the region of Verona and Mantua, the Boii in the country now forming the duchies of Parma and Modena and about Bologna (Bononia), the Lingones about Ravenna, the Senones, who came last, in the S. E. of Cispadane Gaul, and other tribes in various other parts of the country. It was not long after the conquest of Veii by the Romans that this people came in contact with the Gauls. These invaders had conquered the northern possessions of the Etruscan confederacy while the Romans were making their attacks on its southern districts. They had pushed the Umbrians southward, taken Melpum (396 B. C.), crossed the Apennines under one of their Brenni, and advanced as far as Clusium. The Tuscans of this city now sought aid from the Romans, who, however, sent no army to their assistance, but despatched the Fabii as envoys to deter the barbarians. The envoys only provoked them, and drew their sword upon Rome. Brennus broke up the camp before Clusium, crossed the Tiber, routed the Romans on the Allia, entered Rome through open gates, and pillaged it; but finally, after an obstinate siege of the capitol, he sold his conquest for gold and retired with his army. Rome long and well remembered the "day of the Allia" (July 18) and all the terrors of the first Gallic invasion. All others proved disastrous to the barbarians. In 367 they were routed near Alba by the old Marcus Camillus, who won there his last victory. In 361 another host, like the first of the Senonian tribe, encamped before the Anio bridge, but marched further toward Campania before fighting a battle. Shortly after returning from Campania they renewed their ravages, and fought unsuccessfully against the dictators Ahala and Peticus. In 350 they again encamped before Rome, keeping it in perpetual terror; but in the following year L. Furius Camillus, a nephew of Marcus, compelled them to retire, an event the fame of which reached even the contemporary Aristotle in Greece. When in a later period the Gauls assisted the Umbrians and Etruscans against the more and more advancing Romans, they were routed in the battle of Sentinum (296), where many of them fought on war chariots, and near the lake Vadimon (283). These disasters, suffered chiefly by the Senonian and Boian Gauls, put an end to the Gallic wars in Italy for nearÎy 60 years. The Romans, who had conquered Umbria, founded their first colony in Cispadane Gaul, in the land of the Senones, calling it Sena Gallica (now Sinigaglia); Ariminum (Rimini) was founded afterward. The Gauls were too

much weakened to offer any opposition. But strengthened by the arrival of large bodies from beyond the Alps, they took up arms again in 225, and crossed the Apennines, but were soon compelled to retreat, and were routed at Telamon. The Romans continued the war with great vigor, conquered the land of the Boii, crossed the Po, on the opposite banks of which they soon after founded Cremona and Placentia (Piacenza), and subdued the Insubrians (221). The details of all these military events, as for instance the single combats of T. Manlius Torquatus (361) and M. Valerius Corvus (349) with gigantic Gauls, belong to the history of Rome, or rather to the legends of its heroes. When Hannibal crossed the Alps (218) he was eagerly joined by numerous Gauls, but after his final defeat (201) Cisalpine Gaul became an easy prey to the victorious legions. It was made a Roman province at the beginning of the following century, received numerous new Roman colonies, became civilized, industrious, and flourishing, and finally obtained the privileges of Roman citizenship. Of the 11 divisions of Italy, as established under Augustus, it formed the last four. The Salassians, who revolted under the same reign, were nearly exterminated. The Romanization of the province was rapidly developed, and many celebrated Romans of the later period were its natives, as for instance Livy, who was born at Patavium (Padua) in 58 B. C.—Of Transalpine Gaul, upon the southern coast of which Phonicians, Rhodians, and Phocæans had, at various remote periods, carried colonies and some rudiments of civilization, the arts of writing, mining, and working metals, the olive and the vine, the Romans first entered the S. E. angle. In 166 B. C. the Maritime Alps were first crossed by Roman legions, who defeated the tribes of the western slopes. In 154 they defended Massilia (Marseilles), a colony of Phocæa, and herself the mother of numerous colonies, against the Ligurians. Twenty years later they fought against the Salyes, a Celto-Ligurian tribe. Soon after they founded Aqua Sextia (Aix), and subdued the Allobroges, who lived between the Rhone (Rhodanus) and the Isère (Isara), and were assisted by the Arverni (121). This new course of Roman conquests was interrupted by the great Cimbro-Teutonic movement (see CIMBRI), but the two victories of Marius at Aquæ Sextiæ (102) and on the Raudian fields (101), over the Teutons and Cimbri, saved both the Transalpine and Cisalpine possessions of Rome. The former, eventually extending from the Alps to the Pyrénées, and embracing the modern provinces of Dauphiny, Languedoc, Provence (from the Roman Provincia), Roussillon, and Nice, were called Gallia Braccata or Comata, from the long hair (coma) of the inhabitants. The internal development of the main parts of Transalpine Gaul, during the times when the Cisalpine country was successively Gallicized and Romanized, cannot be traced in historical records. When the Romans,

in the last period of the history of their republic, finally entered the great north-west, they found the country occupied by various tribes, ruled by nobles, priests, and chiefs or kings. Caesar, the conqueror of the people and the historian of their last desperate struggles for independence, comprehends all of them under the general name of Gauls, dividing them, however, into the 3 large groups of Belgians, in the N. E. between the Rhine, Seine (Sequana), and Marne (Matrona); Celts, or Gauls proper, in the centre and west, between the Seine, Marne, and Garonne (Garumna); and Aquitanians, in the S. W., between the Garonne and the Pyrénées. In the first of these groups Kymric and Belgic elements seem to have prevailed, in the second Gaelic, in the third Iberic and other non-Celtic elements, though the divisions of Cæsar do not fully coincide with the lines of distinction drawn by modern ethnologists. Among the more important tribes were the Batavi, near the mouths of the Rhine; the Nervii, in the S. W. of modern Belgium; the Eburones, about Liége; the Ambiani, about Amiens; the Morini," the remotest of men," about Boulogne; the Atrebates, in Artois; the Bellovaci, about Beauvais; the Suessiones, about Soissons; the Parisii, about Paris (Lutetia); the Remi, in Champagne (Rheims); the Treveri, about Treves; the Teutonic Tribocci, Ubii, and Nemetes, on the Rhine; the Eburovices, about Evreux; the Cenomani, in Maine; the Armorican Nannetes (Nantes), Veneti (Vannes), and Redones (Rennes), the chief representatives of the Kymric race, in Brittany; the Turones, in Touraine; the Andes or Andegavi, in Anjou; the Carnutes, about Chartres and Orleans; the Lingones, about Langres; the Senones, about Sens (Agendicum); the Lemovices, in Limousin; the Santones, in Saintonge; the Pictones, in Poitou; the Arverni, in Auvergne ; the Helvii, in Vivarais; the Gabali, in Gévaudan; the Edui, in the region of Autun (Bibracte); the Mandubii, about Sainte Reine and Alise (Alesia); the Insubres, in Lyonnais; the Bituriges, in earlier times a leading tribe, about Bourges (Avaricum); the Sequani, about Besançon (Vesontio); the Helvetii, in Switzerland; the Bituriges Vivisci, about Bordeaux (Burdigala); and the Tarbelli, in Béarn.-Compared with their eastern neighbors, the Germans, the Gauls had reached a certain degree of culture at the time of Cæsar's invasion. They had towns, and used the art of fortification with success; they had long known the arts of embroidering and working metals, and were regarded as the inventors of various implements of husbandry; the Armoricans possessed a navy; the Gallic country was reputed to be the richest in Europe. The Romans, however, were fully entitled to call them barbarians. Their manners were rude, their speech was rough and hardly intelligible, milk and flesh of swine were the principal aliments, their villages were adorned or rather disfigured with inhuman trophies, the treatment of captive or slain enemies was bar