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VOL. XII

A book that should have been noticed long ago is a monograph of 64 pages, entitled Hints and Helps for Students of Latin, published privately, in 1914, at Hamilton, New York, by Professor John Greene, of Colgate University.

The contents of the monograph are as follows: Foreword (pages 3-7); The Inflected Forms (8-17); The Pronouns (18-34); Helps Toward Analysis (35-47); Translation (48-64). In the Foreword attention is called to the parts of the book which, in its author's opinion, are of special value: the discussion of the pronouns (§§ 31-55), and the treatment of "the relational mechanism of the language" (§§ 56–76).

In the paragraphs on Inflected Forms (1-30) many useful hints and helps are given which, if mastered and used, will enable pupils and teachers to gain a firmer mastery of the Latin inflections. Since Professor Greene is dealing here, as everywhere else in his book, "only with facts" (the facts, by the way, of Classical Latin), he naturally was unable to present much, if anything, that is new; but he has made an earnestand often successful effort to put the facts well. Without mentioning, (so far as I noted), the term homonym, he deals largely with homonyms, and gives, in various paragraphs, lists of them for practice. In these, as a further means of testing the student, Professor Greene omits, e.g. in § 30, the markings of the long vowels.

A very important part of Professor Greene's book is his discussion of the Threefold Pronoun (§§ 31-55). In English, he says, who, which, what are twofold pronouns, since they serve both as relative pronouns and as interrogatives. In Latin, the forms made up on "the root qui, quo, qua" constitute a threefold pronoun, relative, interrogative, and indefinite (33). Professor Greene objects (33) to the practice obtaining in Latin Grammars <and Beginners' Latin books> of giving, in three separate places, the forms of the relative, the interrogative, and the indefinite; he groups in one paragraph (34) all the forms involved in the three sets of uses. Since the forms serve both as substantives and as adjectives, it follows that for any form included in this list we must select, at once, two of the six possibilities, if we are to determine aright the function and the meaning of the form (35). But, as Professor Greene points out (36), there are definite aids to right progress in this labyrinth: e.g. certain forms are never relative; quid is never adjective.

§ 38 gives a good example of the sort of concrete aids supplied by Professor Greene:

A form of the threefold pronoun is indefinite (any, any one, anything):

No. 14

(1) Always after num and in composition with

ec-.

(2) Regularly (not always) after si, nisi, ne. (3) Occasionally after other subordinate connectives, especially relative words.

(4) Veryrarely in an independent declarative clause. (5) Never when the form begins its clause.

Then comes a paragraph of examples, with references back to the subdivisions given above. There is nothing, by the way, here or elsewhere, to indicate where the examples come from; some, if not most of the examples through the book, are made up by the author, often enough, to be sure, on the basis of actual Latin passages.

In § 39, Professor Greene explains when a form of the threefold pronoun is necessarily relative; in § 41, when it is necessarily interrogative. In § 43, he notes that "when the subjunctive is subordinated by a form of the threefold pronoun (other than quod substantive, 39, b, and quis or quid, 41, b), the matter is not always simple". In § 43, he offers some useful hints as to how we are to solve the main problem here "to distinguish indirect questions from the various relative clauses that require the subjunctive and to interpret the latter correctly". One might, by the way, note that the Romans themselves could not always do this; see the article by Miss A. F. Bräunlich, The Confusion of the Indirect Question and the Relative Clause in Latin, Classical Philology 13 (1918), 60-74.

In §§ 45-48 there is a discussion of compounds of qui, quis. Here, I regret to say, Professor Greene seems not to be successful in his definitions. Better than what he says would be notes like the following:

aliquis denotes someone whose identity is completely unknown to the speaker or the writer.

nescioquis has the same meaning, more plainly and in much higher degree; it is aliquis raised to the nth power.

quidam (1) denotes some one whose identity is known, more or less completely, to the writer; (2) it conveys a suggestion that the writer is holding in reserve his information concerning that person.

quilibet, quivis belong in affirmative sentences; they are all-inclusive. They mean 'any one' in the sense of 'everyone'.

quisquam and ullus belong in sentences plainly negative on their face or negative in implication; they are all-exclusive. Reinforced by the negative, expressed or implied, they mean 'any one' in the sense of 'no one (at all)'. Finally, quisquam: ullus:: noun: adjective. In the pages entitled Helps Toward Analysis (pages 34-43), there is a good discussion of Conjunctive Words (§§ 60-65); and good sections (66-75) on word-order. The sections on translation (89-104) are also good.