who will never read Caesar a most valuable and permanent possession that can, I believe, be gained in no other way.

(2) It demands that all Latin teachers shall present each grammatical topic deliberately and consciously in such a way that in fundamental idea, technical terminology and, so far as possible, in the method of expression, it becomes valid to its fullest extent for English and every foreign language the pupil is likely to study.

(3) It demands that, as in vocabulary, so in syntax the laboratory method be followed. The introductory lessons on the subjunctive, for example, should involve a search for the English subjunctives in contemporary newspapers and other reading. Contact with life should be maintained at every point.

(4) It demands again departmental coordination. We have worked this out carefully, and interdepartmental conferences have gradually removed all contradictory and inconsistent treatment in either method or terminology. We have given the emphasis, however, to the development of the recognition on the part of the departments of their mutual obligations, with confidence that when they should once set to work to fulfill these obligations agreement in terminology would follow automatically to satisfy a natural demand. Thus a uniform terminology has followed and not preceded departmental coordination. I am convinced that the ultimate grammatical system will be the result of a slow natural growth, a survival of the fittest, after the socializing principle has been recognized.

As a corollary of this requirement for departmental cooperation, it follows that all grammar taught in English or foreign language classes subsequent to the first year of Latin should consciously go back to the Latin and build upon it. Thus Latin will receive back with interest all it has expended. The School Board of Rochester has published and sells to the pupils at cost the results of our labor in the form of a pamphlet entitled Introductory Lessons in High School English and Latin.

III. I have chosen the field of inflections for a more detailed examination chiefly because I have already discussed, on a number of occasions, the problems involved in vocabulary and syntax. Furthermore, this topic seems at first glance the most unpromising field of all for the application of the principle under discussion, and, in proportion as it is doubtless to the average pupil the dryest and most unadulterated drudgery in all his Latin work, in that proportion should we search the more carefully to bring to bear every illuminating and humanizing element.

What will the application of the socializing principle demand in the treatment of inflection?

(1) It demands that the presentation of each declension, conjugation and comparison be accompanied by a study of such of these inflectional forms as occur in the environment of the pupil, either preserving

their original force as Latin words or preserving their original form only.

(2) It demands that the relation between inflection and English derivation be carefully studied and the pupil taught to apply these principles both in discovering derivatives through inflection and conversely in strengthening his knowledge of inflection through the support of derivatives.

(3) It demands that inflections be so taught as to give the pupil a rational understanding of English inflectional forms and a sound basis for the conscious recognition of the synthetical and analytical elements in any language studied thereafter.

(4) It demands again departmental coordination. The inflections of English and Latin should be arranged in corresponding form in such a way as to be mutually illuminating and supporting.

(5) It demands that the type words used in the paradigms should be, so far as possible, chosen from those within the experience of the pupil.

The material at our disposal for the study of inflections may be classified as follows:

1. Latin words used in English preserving not only their original form but their capacity for inflection as Latin words. Many of these can be found by the pupils themselves in their ordinary English reading and in their text-books of mathematics and science.

already to have been solved in great measure by these words, the value of which the pupil has been feeling directly by virtue of their Latin endings. They form a natural bridge from the analytical English to the synthetical Latin.

2. Latin words and phrases found in English preserving some case-usage. Many such words will have been already collected by the pupil in his first search for Latin expressions in English. These should be reexamined as the cases and the declensions which they illustrate are taken up. To classify these words is scarcely necessary. Expressions like anno domini and per annum, casus belli and ante bellum, tempus fugit and pro tempore, pax vobiscum and requiescat in pace, vox populi and viva voce will illustrate this class sufficiently. When the fifth declension is first taken up, the expressions per diem, ante meridiem, bona fide, prima facie should be presented in an English context and analyzed.

3. English words preserving the original nominative singular form, but no longer felt as Latin words. a. Nouns

inferior

excelsior

exterior

toga

mayor junior superior

nonplus posterior

corona

3) Superlative

maximum minimum

camera

abscissa

1) First declension

2) Second declension

Masculine in -us

umbra

phosphorus chorus

b. Verbs

quorum (gen.) omnibus (dat.) gratis (abl.)

rebus (abl.)

No. (abl.)

tenet

Subjunctive - fiat

Imperative - recipe, memento.
Infinitive posse

Participles-referendum, corrigenda, addendum.

5. The careful study of derivatives advocated in the previous topic will not only assist the pupil to an understanding of English, but, if at the same time certain simple general principles of derivation have been pointed out, these same derivatives can assist materially in the initial mastery and retention of the inflections.

a. Declension itinerary is from iter: incarnate

Nouns ending in -tor

corrector

Latin gen. Sing. = itineris

caro:

carnis

Nouns ending in -or

custody

cor: custos:

cordis

= custodis

donor

rigor

horror

humor

color

So veteran gives the gen. sing. of vetus; audacious of audax; decorate of decus; criminal of crimen; and so with countless others.

This principle is of special value in assisting the pupil to remember whether adjectives and nouns in -er drop the e or retain it.

miserable is from miser: therefore miser, misera, miserum

pulchritude is from pulcher: therefore pulcher, pulchra, pulchrum

acrid is from acer: therefore acer, acris, acre celerity is from celer; therefore celer, celeris, celere nostrum is from noster: therefore noster, nostra, nostrum

sacred is from sacer: therefore sacer, sacra, sacrum So with numerous others. Even a variation in the English spelling is significant. The two spellings dextrous and dexterous show the pupil that there were two inflections originally in Latin:

dexter, dextra, dextrum, and dexter, dextera, dexterum.

Not only is this process of practical value, but it performs a distinct service in the mental training of the pupil in substituting in part the logical process of association for the purely mechanical process of memorization. A properly constructed first year book will print with every new noun or adjective the derivative most significant in this respect. b. Comparison.

A Latin comparison becomes a much more vital thing when to the usual request to compare the adjective is added the requirement to compare the word on the basis of its English derivatives, thus:

bonus- boon ameliorate optimist
malus- malefactor impair pessimist
supra- surplus superior supreme and summit
magnus- magnate major (or mayor) maximum
parvus- parvanimity minor minus minimize

c. Conjugation.

The fact that derivatives from verbs are formed from either the first or the last principal part (-tor, tion, -sor, sion, from the last, and -nt from the first) furnishes an important principle that should be in constant operation.

assume and assumption: therefore sumo, sumere, -, sumptus

join and conjunction: therefore iungo, iungere, -, iunctus

recipient and reception: therefore recipio, recipere, -, receptus

ingredient and congress: therefore congredior, congredi, -, congressus

redeem, redemption: therefore redimo, redimere, -, redemptus

augment and auction: therefore augeo, augere, -,

auctus

So convert and conversion, feign and fiction, contingent and contact, foundry and fusion, repel and repulsion, destroy and destruction, etc. Education and predication beside conduct and predict show the existence of first conjugation verbs dico, dicare, duco, ducare.

The giving of principal parts becomes likewise much more significant to the pupil when he is expec ed to parallel his first and last parts with English derivatives or when the question takes the form, 'Give the principal parts of the verb from which are derived diction, dictate, dedication'.

6. Words preserving some significant inflectional syllable.

1. The present act. part. in -nt = ing recipient, tangent, ingredient, solvent, ardent, serpent, recumbent, repellent, crescent, fluent, sapient, consequent, salient, etc.

Not only does the recognition of this inflectional form in the English derivatives give the basis for interpreting them, but it also preserves the i of io verts and constitutes an additional factor on the rational side of the principal parts.

2. The future pass. part. in -nd

minuend, subtrahend, multiplicand, dividend, reverend, propaganda, reprimand, stupendous, addendum, gerund, gerundive, second, legend. Such facts may be brought into problem form by the request to explain, for example, the mathematical topic of division on the basis of derivation: divisor, dividend, quotient (not the participle).

3. The future act. part. in -tur

mentum impedimentum, impediment, fragment, etc.

ilis

osus

orium

docilis, docile, legible, etc.

laboriosus, laborious, spacious, etc.
auditorium, natatorium, etc.

In this field there should be constant use of our principle throughout the four years.

It is obvious that much of what I have outlined is practicable for the teacher to introduce no matter what the basis is of the first year book used. Much will be impracticable except through the medium of a book constructed with this conception as its basis. No such book will ever be written by a single individual. It will demand for its production the existence among the classical teachers themselves of the solidarity that only the socializing ideal itself can create. It will have to be the expression in tangible form of the very spirit I am advocating, of coordination instead of isolation among the teachers of Latin.

There are many questions that will doubtless arise in your mind that I am compelled by lack of time to ignore. I trust you will not assume that omission necessarily means failure to recognize the difficulty. You may be asking what effect such a program will have upon the reading of Caesar. Even if it did leave the fifty per cent. who enter Caesar without certain words 'occurring five times in Caesar' and without certain grammatical facts traditionally included in every first year book, I should maintain that the other fifty per cent. had the right of way and that special Caesarean problems should be left for the second year. I believe in rendering unto Caesar the things that are Caesar's. But I am convinced that the method here advocated would be best even from the standpoint of the pupil in Caesar. While the vocabulary of such a first year book would admittedly not be Cae arean to the extent of 96 2-3 per cent., yet he fundamental vocabulary basis would still be present, and the far greater significance, vitality and dynamic power possessed by such a vocabulary would more than compensate for the new words to be learned, words that the pupil has learned to attack with keener tools than those of memory solely. EAST HIGH SCHOOL, Rochester, N. Y.

MASON D. GRAY.

Hellenic Civilization. Edited by G. W. Botsford and E. G. Sihler. With Contributions by William L. Westermann, Charles J. Ogden, and others. New York: Columbia University Press (1915). Pp. 13 +719. $3.75.

It is long since we first heard that a series entitled Records of Civilization: Sources and Studies was to appear. At last we have the first volume. It is with surprise that we note that, while separate volumes are announced for the Sacramental System and for Reprisals in the History of International Law, the whole of Hellenic Civilization is compressed into a single work. Thus we expect a sort of glorified source book, too large for any but a decidedly advanced class, too scrappy for advanced reading. Nor do we forget that one of the editors has already produced the most usable Source Book of Ancient History now available.

Our expectations are not quite realized, for, if this is a source book, it is a source book of a new kind. Few of the selections from the earlier work are here repeated and there is little attempt to give long narratives from the historians. Where the famous historians are excerpted, it is to draw our attention to some phase of civilization we might otherwise overlook. The brilliant passages dealing with the Persian and Peloponnesian Wars are missing, but nevertheless we get a good idea of the causes and results of these wars.

It is no surprise to find that a book edited by the author of the Roman Assemblies has handled the constitutional side of the history in an exceptionally effective manner. Practically all the important passages which give the political thought of the Greeks are here massed, including the discussion of the various forms of government which Herodotus places in the mouths of certain Persians, the pseudo-Xenophontic Polity of the Athenians, which Professor Sihler has been well advised to print entire, and the Funeral Oration of Pericles, from Thucydides. The constitution of the Boeotian League, so interesting a parallel to our own, is given from the recently discovered Oxyrhyncus Papyrus, and just before it is printed another recent discovery, the treatise On the Constitution, formerly considered a late and useless sophistic production, but now recognized as a peculiarly interesting exposition of political thought in the period immediately after the Peloponnesian War. Considering

its difficulty and its inaccessibility, Professor Sihler has been again well advised in presenting it entire. Needless to say, the inscriptions which illuminate constitutional problems are generously utilized.

Some of us have long known that Professor Westermann of Wisconsin had made a large number of translations from the inscriptions and the papyri. From this store he has selected the material for a chapter on Administration, Industry, and Education in the Hellenistic Kingdoms (568-609). To those who have not followed the discoveries of recent years this new material will be a welcome surprise, especially the sources dealing with the land system and the development of serfdom, so parallel to that of the Middle Ages. Throughout the book, an attempt has been made to collect material bearing on the economic life of Hellas and the attempt has been most successful. Merely to read the book through is to gain a better conception, so well are the extracts grouped, than would come from some manuals devoted to economic history.

To the student of legal history, the material gathered in this volume should be most welcome. In a recent work on the Sources of Ancient and Primitive Law, the Greek material consisted of selections from Homer, Plutarch, and the Law of Gortyna. Here we have a chapter devoted to Private and Criminal Law (275292), in which is given an elaborately documented translation of the Gortyna Code and of the precious fragment of the homicide law of Draco. Scattered through the remainder of the book, especially in the sections devoted to the orators, are many other passages throwing a vivid light on legal matters, property, partnership, commercial law, dower, wills, and loans. Particularly noteworthy is the long inscription recently discovered by the Americans at Sardis, which adds much to our knowledge of mortgage law. Never before have we had in English so valuable a collection of sources on Greek law.

When one comes to the heading Social Conditions (471-526), one may expect almost any character of extract. It is perhaps here more than anywhere else that opinions about the work will differ. In the opinion of the reviewer, the problem has been successfully met. It will no doubt be felt by many that the more purely literary side of Greek life has been somewhat ignored. To this the answer is obvious. There are many volumes of selections from Greek literature. There is but one Hellenic Civilization.

Here and there one misses favorites. For example, one is surprised to find nothing from the Mimes of Herodas. On the other hand, the reviewer is constantly tempted to notice some particularly interesting selection not generally known in the Schools. One must praise the general Introduction (1-62), by Professor Botsford, which is a small treatise on the sources for Greek civilization, the notes on the extracts, so much to the point, and the astonishingly complete bibliographies (also by Professor Botsford). The notes breathe the utmost enthusiasm for things Greek and especially for things Athenian. One may be a thorough believer in democracy and yet not subscribe to all that is said about Athenian government. Is not the most valuable effect on the American student of the study of Greek history the realization of the blunders of the Athenian democracy which we may avoid? On one point, we must certainly take issue. The section of Xenophon's Economicus which so beautifully distinguishes the relative fields of activity which are adapted for men and for women is made the basis for this observation: "In the face of such facts, it is absurd to speak of the inferiority of Athenian women of this period". Other facts flatly oppose such a conception. Is not the whole passage simply the reaction on a cultured Athenian mind of the higher treatment of women by that Spartan state Xenophon so greatly admired?

Our final impression is that of great scholarship, combined with equally great skill in the selection and presentation of the sources. Rarely has there appeared a single volume which has contributed so much new material for the enlivening of Greek history.

LORD REDESDALE ON THE CLASSICS

With Mr. Jelf (the translator of Kühner's Greek Grammar) I had but one hour a day, but then it was such an hour! Sixty minutes not one of which was without its value. During the months that I spent with him, from the end of January to October, I read through the whole of Herodotus, the Iliad and the Odyssey, the Agamemnon of Aeschylus, and, above all, as an exercise, the Medea of Euripides, looking out every reference in my master's great grammar. In Latin I read Pliny's delightful letters, was supposed to be sufficiently well up in Horace and Virgil, and was spared the arch-bore Cicero, in regard to whom I by no means shared the enthusiasm of Mrs. Blimber; as a matter of archaeology I might sympathize with her as to the Tusculan villa, but its owner and his selfglorification I should have avoided.

I should like, if it is not deemed an impertinence, to say one word here upon the much-vexed question of a classical education, and of Greek in particular. It is very easy, very cheap, to say that Greek and Latin are of no use in learning modern languages. I have had some experience in the study of both, and I am distinctly of opinion that nothing has helped me so much in the acquisition of even the most out-of-theway modern languages as the work which I did under Jelf, dissecting every sentence and every particle in the Medea with the help of his Greek grammar.

No language has been so thoroughly analysedperhaps because none has been so philosophically constructed as Greek. The man who starts upon the study of modern languages, after having dissected, conscientiously and searchingly, the work of one of the Greek giants with the help of Jelf's great book, has insensibly converted his mind into a sort of comparative grammar, he has acquired the knowledge of points of difference and points of similarity, that is to say of comparison, of which Buffon said, "Nous ne pouvons acquérir de connaissance que par la voie de la comparison", and although the aid given to him is, of course,

From Lord Redesdale's book, entitled Memories, 1.92 ff.

indirect, it is none the less real. He is in the position, of a man who goes to a new gymnastic exercise with trained muscles, and therefore with marvellous ease, as compared with the man whose muscles and sinews are flabby and slack. That it is a discipline of the highest significance few will be found to deny. When Darwin spent seven years in dissecting barnacles it was not simply a knowledge of barnacle nature at which he was aiming; he was training his mind for other purposes. Apart from the beauties which they reveal to us, and so without any reference to the important question of culture, I am in favour of the study of the classics, as a gymnastic exercise of the brain, as a dissection of barnacles which yields far higher results than could be gained by merely learning French and German without any other preparation. In that way a man would attain what must simply be a more or less glorified couriers' knowledge, practical no doubt, up to a certain degree, but unscientific and failing him at crucial points.

The best Oriental scholars whom I have known have all been men who attacked their Eastern studies armed with the weapons furnished by a classical education.

And our own beautiful English, the language of Chaucer, Shakespeare, Milton: will that not suffer if a false utilitarianism should succeed in banishing the classics from our schools? Even now it is surrounded by enemies, but I shudder to think of what it might become after two centuries of nothing but transoceanic influences unchecked by scholarship.

Classical Articles in Non-Classical Periodicals

III

L'Académie des Sciences Morales et Politiques Sept.-Oct., Démosthène et les Athéniens.

American Historical Review-April, Botsford and Sihler, Hellenic Civilization (Paul Shorey).-July, Race Mixture in the Roman Empire, Tenney Frank. Oct., Leaf, Homer and History (G. M. Bolling); Legge, Forerunners and Rivals of Christianity (F. A. Christie).

Anglia-May, Pope als Übersetzer der Ilias, iii, M. J. Minckwitz. Atlantic Monthly-July, Parents and Schools, A. Flexner. Athenaeum-Aug., (The Cambridge Songs: a Goliard's Song Book of the Eleventh Century, Edited by Karl Breul); Archaeological Notes.

Bibliotheca Sacra-Oct., Further Readings (in St. Matthew] from the Codex Huntingtonianus: (The Mythology of All Races. Vol. I, Greek and Roman, W. S. Fox).

Bookman-Dec., Pallas Athena [a poem), Arlita Dodge. Contemporary Review-Nov., (A. S. Way, The Aeneid of Virgil Educational Review Sept., The Purpose of College Greek, Virginia C. Gildersleeve.

in English Verse).

English Historical Review-July, The Table of Veleia, or the Lex Rubria, E. G. Hardy; The Date of the Notitia of Constantinople, J. B. Bury; Young, East and West through Fifteen Centuries (Alice Gardner).-Oct., The Cambridge Songs: a Goliard's Song Book, Edited by K. Breul (W. P. Ker); Pareti, Studi Siciliani e Italioti (W. A. Goligher); Robert of Chester's Latin Translation of the Algebra of AlKhowarizmi, Edited by L. C. Karpinski (W. W. Rouse Ball).

Folk-Lore-Sept. 30, The Pharmakos, Jane E. Harrison. Fortnightly Review-Nov., Places and Peoples on the Roumanian Danube, W. F. Bailey and J. V. Bates [with numerous references to the activities of Rome in that region].

La Grand Revue-Oct., L'Allemagne contre la Culture Classique, V. H. Friedel.

Harvard Theological Review-April, Mystery God and Olympian God, G. P. Adams; Murray, The Stoic Philosophy (Frederic Palmer).

Independent-Oct. 30, Romans and Rumans.-Nov. 6, (Greek Gods and Heroés).

Journal of English and Germanic Philology-Oct., What Qualities of Greek and Latin Literature Especially Attracted Goethe?, W. J. Keller.