them from an eternal death! Let the lands of our nativity exert themselves to make some slight recompense for the innumerable blessings which a merciful Father has showered upon them, and strain every nerve to hasten the glorious time when salvation shall be within the reach of all. Then will the huge idol of Chinese superiority and superstition be shattered; then will China take her place in the family of occidental civilizations; then, clothed in righteousness, will she sit at the feet of Jesus; and then will a new generation of thinkers arise, to whom the classics will be a study, but not a guide.

ART. VII.-THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR.

ALTHOUGH peace had been secured to the Protestants of Germany, by the treaty of Augsburg, in 1555, the state of the country was still unsettled, and new disturbances were anticipated. The Papists, who had lost so much ground, were waiting the opportunity to recover something back; while the Protestants were intent on keeping all they had gained, and on making, if possible, further encroachments.

Charles V. was succeeded by his brother Ferdinand, and he by his son Maximilian, both of them amiable and upright rulers, who were disposed to observe their treaty obligations, and to regard their subjects, whether Protestants or Catholics, with kindness and impartiality.

Rudolph II., son of Maximilian, was a different character. He was a bigoted Catholic and a persecutor, who involved himself and his house in great trials, and died leaving little of imperial authority except the name. He was succeeded by his brother Matthias, who had long been in contest with Rudolph, and had taken from him most of his dominions. But his reign was not peaceful or prosperous, and having no direct heir to succeed him, the government descended to Ferdinand of Gratz, another branch of the Hapsburg family, known in history as Ferdinand II. He was crowned at Frankfort in 1619. He had before been appointed, though not inaugurated, king of Bohemia. The Bohemians were unwilling to accept him as their king, and chose in his stead the elector palatine, Fred

erick V. But Ferdinand succeeded in driving Frederick into exile, and was at length acknowledged king of Bohemia. This Ferdinand had been educated by the Jesuits, was guided chiefly by their councils, and was, for long years, a principal cause of the troubles which affected Germany.

The Thirty Years' War originated in Bohemia, in 1618, a little previous to the cominencement of Ferdinand's reign. Its origin was on this wise: By the existing laws, as understood by the Protestants, they had a right to build new churches, not only in their own provinces, but wherever they were needed throughout the kingdom. In accordance with this right, two churches were erected in the year 1617, one of which was torn down by the Catholics, while the other was closed, and its proprietors imprisoned. An appeal was made to the existing authorities; but these, so far from restraining the aggressors, the rather encouraged them, and Ferdinand, though not yet king of Bohemia, was very severe upon the Protestants.

Enraged by these proceedings, a convention of Protestant delegates assembled at Prague in May, 1618, determined to preserve their own rights, and to take vengeance on their enemies. In this assembly were several Catholics, and among them two, Martinitz and Slavata, who, by various oppressive acts, had made themselves particularly obnoxious. Those the Protestant delegates seized, and hurled them out of a three story window. The men were not killed, but a great excitement followed. Anticipating a retribution, the Protestants flew to arms, and, under direction of Count Thorn, took possession of every city in Bohemia which was not occupied by the imperial troops. They had a brave ally in the person of Count Ernest of Mansfeld, who came to their assistance with three thousand men.

Count Thorn advanced with his army upon Vienna, and fired even upon the imperial castle, where Ferdinand had taken up his quarters. The situation of Ferdinand at this time seemed almost desperate. His enemies talked of confining him in a convent, and training up his children in the Protestant faith. But his own firmness did not forsake him; and he was speedily and unexpectedly relieved by the arrival of a body of imperial cavalry. Count Thorn was obliged to retire; and Fer

dinand hastened to Frankfort, where he was chosen emperor of Germany, as before stated, in 1619.

Sad for Bohemia was the punishment which the new emperor and king soon inflicted on it. Forty-eight of the Protestant leaders were taken prisoners on the same day, and twenty-seven of them were condemned to death. Their property was confiscated, as well as that of many others, among whom was the brave Count Thorn. By degrees the Protestant clergy were all driven out of Bohemia, and an order was issued that no person should be tolerated there who did not adhere to the Catholic religion. It is stated that thirty-thousand families were at this time forced to leave the country, the most of whom went to Saxony and Brandenburg.

To all human appearance, the contest now seemed to be about decided. Bohemia was subjugated, its late king was dethroned and in exile, and Ferdinand had every thing in his own way. But Count Mansfeld was still left to the Protestants, who was an efficient helper, and who employed his forces somewhat independently, as Providence might direct. In a short time he had collected an army of twenty thousand men, and was able to confront Count Tilly, whom the emperor had left to keep the field. Mansfeld did not attempt, however, to recapture Bohemia, but marched his forces into other parts of Germany. In connection with Christian, Duke of Brunswick, he spread desolation among the Catholic bishops on the Rhine. After devastating the Rhenish provinces, they marched together into Holland, and joined the brave Netherlanders in their struggle against the Spaniards.

It now seemed as though peace might be restored to Germany if the victors were inclined to act with moderation. But Ferdinand had no thought of halting in the midst of his revolutionary movements. He considered himself as called upon in providence (to use his own language) "to crush all the seditious factions which had been stirred up chiefly by the heresy of Calvinism;" and he recognized in the success which had thus far crowned his efforts an intimation that God was with him. He succeeded, at this time, in getting one more vote in the college of electors, which placed the majority in the hands of the Catholics.

In these circumstances the Protestants, not being able by

their disjointed efforts to maintain their ground against the Catholics, chose Christian IV., king of Denmark, for their commander in chief. He promised them effective assistance, and England did the same. On the other hand, the emperor found a powerful helper in Albert of Wallenstein, a man of vast wealth and unbounded ambition, who, encouraged by the stars, in which he had great confidence, thought himself able to carry the whole country with him. He attached himself to the emperor, and marched with a troop of cavalry, raised at his own expense, to assist him in an expedition against Venice. For this and for other services Wallenstein received, in 1622, the territory of Friedland, in Bohemia, together with the title of duke. He also purchased about sixty estates of the Bohemian nobility, which had been confiscated after the battle of Prague, and thus made a great addition to his wealth. He soon had an army of no less than fifty thousand men, to be employed in the service of the emperor. But as it had been raised and equipped at his own expense, he had it under his entire control.

Wallenstein was born to command. His eyes were bright and piercing, and his figure proud and lofty, so that his very appearance inspired reverence and awe. In the autumn of 1625 he marched with his new army into lower Saxony. Count Tilly, though engaged in the same cause, was afraid of him and refused to join him. In 1626 he defeated Count Mansfeld on the bridge of Dorsey, and this able defender of the Protestants soon after died. In the same year died his friend, the Duke of Brunswick, and thus were the Protestants deprived of their two ablest generals. At the same time, the king of Denmark, who had been appointed their commander in chief, was able to do but little for them. He was not born to be a military leader, and in the same year was defeated by Tilly, and lost all his artillery. In the following year (1627) Wallenstein marched against him, and drove him out of Germany. It was now seriously contemplated to dethrone him, and appoint Ferdinand king of Denmark.

Meanwhile the army of Wallenstein had increased to one hundred thousand men, and the princes of Germany-even the Catholic princes--were afraid of him. Tilly hated him, for he monopolized for himself all the fruits and the credit of their

joint victories. The emperor himself was no longer able to control him. He lived in a style of pomp and splendor exceeding that of the greatest monarchs, while thousands of wretched beings around him were literally dying of starvation. At the same time, he brought heavy accounts against the emperor for sums which he had advanced in prosecuting the war. His charges amounted to more than three millions of florins, which the emperor being unable to pay, he made over to his proud ally the territories of the duke of Mecklenburg in consideration of the debt. Wallenstein thus became a prince of the empire.

From Mecklenburg Wallenstein turned his eyes to the neighboring province of Pomerania. He wished to get possession. of the city of Stralsund, that he might establish a garrison there. But the citizens of Stralsund refused to receive him; and, being assisted by the kings of Denmark and Sweden, they were able to make a formidable resistance. This moved the wrath of the imperious warrior, and he is said to have given utterance to the following oath: "If Stralsund be linked with chains to the very heavens, I swear it shall fall." He was unable, however, to take the city, and having remained before it several weeks and lost twelve thousand of his men, he was obliged to abandon the object and retire.

At this time the king of Denmark desired peace; and, contrary to all expectation, Wallenstein advised the emperor to grant it. The probability is that, being now a prince of the empire, he did not wish to destroy further the power of the German princes. A very advantageous peace was concluded in 1629, by which the king of Denmark recovered all his lands, without being obliged to bear the expenses of the war. But this peace was of short duration, and could hardly be called a peace while it continued. The Roman Catholics thought the opportunity too favorable to be neglected, and resolved to push their claims as far as possible. They demanded of the Protestants the restitution of all the ecclesiastical benefices of which they had taken possession since the treaty of Passau in 1552, and the emperor decided that their claims must be granted. "At this order," says a distinguished historian, "the Protestants were completely paralyzed; while the more short-sighted of their enemies hailed it with delight." It produced, as we shall see, not only the greatest confusion, but unutterable calamities all FOURTH SERIES, VOL. XXIX.—21